DAILY EXERCISES: RC Set 4

Falsifiability is the term coined by Karl Popper for the idea that a hypothesis or theory addresses the

observable world only insofar as it can be found false as the result of some observation or physical

experiment. For instance, the proposition "All cats have fur" can easily be proven false with the observation of

a single hairless cat. The proposition "The world will

end in the year 3035" is impractical to falsify, but still passes the test of falsifiability in that there exists the

logical possibility that 3035 will come and go without the world ending. To the contrary, it is possible to posit

5 that everything that happens is the will of Zeus. No matter what experiment we design—such as praying to

Zeus to give us the answer or daring Zeus to strike us with lightning—we can always infer that the result is the

will of Zeus. Such a proposition, as

10 conceived here, is not falsifiable. Popper claimed that a falsifiable theory is the only kind that can truly be

scientific, or at least useful to the scientific community.

By that logic, we can also say that no theory should be formed that has no chance of being true. However,

seeing as that kind of theory is much less likely to be formed, it is understandable that Popper does not devote

that much time to the criterion of

15 "confirmability."

91. According to the passage, which of the following does not meet the criteria for falsifiability?

(A) All birds are black.

(B) Earth is the only planet in the universe with intelligent life.

(D) The sun will explode in 100,000 years.

(E) No human being lives forever.

92. To which of the following is the author most likely to agree regarding "confirmability"?

(A) It is a more important theory than falsifiability.

(B) It does not have much practical, scientific use.

(D) It is an unreasonable idea.

(E) Popper should have developed this idea along with falsifiability.

Questions 93–97 are based on the following reading passage.

A dictionary definition of the term political might read something like, "of or concerned with

government, political parties, or politicians." Such a definition is not precisely wrong, but rather is outdated

and falls short by not accounting for what Nancy Fraser calls "the shift from a repressive model of domination

to a hegemonic one." If at some point we believed

governments to operate exclusively through law and the threat and enforcement of concrete punishment, such

as imprisonment, monetary penalties, etc., and called this and all that directly influenced it "politics," we have

now acknowledged the role of hegemony, which legitimizes law and supports the exercise of power.

This is significant because, under the first definition, the only cultural products that can

be said to be political must explicitly address issues of political partisanship or governance, while under the

second definition, all cultural objects can be traced to a certain ideology—in accordance, negotiation, or

opposition to hegemony—and therefore be political.

But we do not feel that we are discussing politics or viewing politics all the time, even if we are,

according to our definition of "the political." This is because even if all subject matter is

(at least potentially) political, not all talk is so. When conducting her study on political talk, Nina Eliasoph

focused not as much on what people talked about, but rather on how exactly they talked about things: "whether

speakers ever assume that what they say matters for someone other than themselves, ever assume that they are

speaking in front of a wider backdrop." She cited Hanna Pitkin in concluding that "public-spirited conversation

happens when citizens

speak in terms of 'justice'." To use an example from the theater, then, we can say that when a director decides

to frame her production of A Streetcar Named Desire as the story of a woman who is losing her mind and

20 does not get along with her aggressive brother-in-law, she is actively depoliticizing the story, whereas she is

actively politicizing it if she decides to frame the narrative as one example of the devastating effects of an old

bourgeois morality, a changing

25 economic system and the social valuing of an abusive model of masculinity.

93. The second paragraph of the passage serves to

(A) offer an alternative to the definitions previously presented

(B) discuss a revision of the definitions previously presented

(D) delineate an exception to the definitions previously presented

(E) describe the inadequacy of the definitions previously presented

94. The author cites A Streetcar Named Desire in order to

(A) provide a counterpoint to the thesis of the passage

(B) illustrate an aspect of the subject under discussion

(D) illustrate the universality of politics

(E) illustrate a fallacy of a definition

95. All of the following provide examples of the hegemonic model of domination EXCEPT:

(A) a penitentiary sentence for assault

(B) a summary execution for treason

(D) censorship of an art exhibit

(E) a successful military coup

96. According to a theory presented in the passage, a person is engaging in public interest conversation if that person

discusses which of the following?

(A) justice

(B) theater

(D) economics

(E) politicians

97. Select a sentence from the first or second paragraph that levels an explicit criticism.

Questions 98–99 are based on the following reading passage.

Explanationism is the idea that prediction is, in itself, insufficient to confirm a theory. To adequately

confirm a theory, according to an explanationist, is to see how well it describes events and phenomena that

have already been observed. Stephen Brush, a staunch explanationist, would say that a correct prediction does

not necessarily confirm the truth of a

theory; it could be the case that a theory predicts something and yet does not provide the best explanation of it.

Take, for example, the difference in the perspectives of Copernicus and Brahe on the solar system.

Copernicus's model of the solar system was heliocentric, positing that all of the planets revolve around the

sun. Brahe's theory stated that all of the planets revolved around the sun, except the earth, which was

immobile, and that the sun actually revolved

around the earth. Even if both accurately predicted future movements of the planets, it is easy to see how

Copernicus's theory has less of an 'ad hoc' quality—and, of course, provides a superior explanation of the

mechanisms of the solar system. It is certainly true that a theory can successfully predict a certain event, yet

fail to provide an adequate explanation for why it happened, or perhaps even stumble on the prediction more by

accident than by manner of

15 understanding the mechanism behind the event.

A predictionist would argue that while a theory can provide a perfect explanation for something

happening, a theory cannot be tested for understanding or explaining the underlying mechanism of a

phenomenon unless it can also predict some event that confirms that exact mechanism at work. For instance, a

physicist might study the formation of solids and

posit that all solids will sink if they are placed in a liquid of the same element, because the solid is denser than

the liquid. Given this premise, we discover that the physicist's prediction is true, and even once he stages an

experiment with ice and water, he will not be proven wrong, but rather will have discovered a unique property

of solid water.

98. Which of the following best expresses the main idea of the passage?

(A) Explanationism is a superior theory to predictionism.

(B) Two very different ideas can both be used to successfully investigate scientific theories.

(D) One cannot posit a physical theory without predictive power or previous observations.

(E) A predictionist and an explanationist will always diverge on whether a scientific theory is correct.

99. Which of the following most accurately states the author's reason for citing the Copernicus and Brahe models of

the solar system?

(A) It shows that a theory without predictive power can never be tested and verified.

(B) It reveals that some theories can have more or less of an 'ad hoc' quality.

(D) It is used to support the idea that a more complicated model will always fail to a simpler model.

(E) It provides an example of when a theory can correctly predict future events but not offer the best

explanation.

Questions 100–105 are based on the following reading passage.

Subatomic particles can be divided into two classes: fermions and bosons, terms coined by physicist Paul

Dirac in honor of his peers Enrico Fermi and Satyendra Bose. Fermions, which include electrons, protons, and

neutrons, obey the Pauli exclusion principle, according to which no two particles can inhabit the same

fundamental state. For example, electrons cannot circle

the nuclei of atoms in precisely the same orbits, loosely speaking, and thus must occupy more and more

distant locations, like a crowd filling seats in a stadium. The constituents of ordinary matter are fermions;

indeed, the fact that fermions are in some sense mutually exclusive is the most salient reason why two things

composed of ordinary matter cannot be in the same place at the same time.

Conversely, bosons, which include photons (particles of light) and the hitherto elusive Higgs boson, do

not obey the Pauli principle and in fact tend to bunch together in exactly the same fundamental state, as in

lasers, in which each photon proceeds in perfect lockstep with all the others. Interestingly, the seemingly stark

division between fermionic and bosonic behavior can be bridged. All particles possess "spin," a characteristic

vaguely analogous to that

of a spinning ball; boson spins are measured in integers, such as 0 and 1, while fermion spins are always halfintegral,

such as ½ and 1½. As a result, whenever an even number of fermions group together, that group of

fermions, with its whole-number total spin, effectively becomes a giant boson. Within certain metals chilled

to near absolute zero, for instance, so-called Cooper pairs of electrons form; these pairs flow in precise

harmony and with zero resistance

through the metal, which is thus said to have achieved a superconductive condition. Similarly, helium-4 atoms

(composed of 2 electrons, 2 protons, and 2 neutrons) can collectively display boson-like activity when cooled

to a superfluid state. A swirl in a cup of superfluid helium will, amazingly, never dissipate.

The observation that even-numbered groups of fermions can behave like bosons raises

the corollary question of whether groups of bosons can ever exhibit fermionic characteristics. Some scientists

argue for the existence of skyrmions (after the theorist Tony Skyrme who first described the behavior of these

hypothetical fermion-like groups of bosons) in superconductors and other condensed-matter environments,

where twists in the structure of the medium might permit skyrmions to form.

Consider each of the answer choices separately and indicate all that apply.

100. The example of "a crowd filling seats in a stadium" (line 6) is intended to

expand upon one consequence of the Pauli exclusion principle

illustrate a behavior of certain fermions

describe how electrons circle the nuclei of atoms in concentric, evenly-spaced orbits'

101. The author's primary purpose in writing this passage is to

(A) explain the mechanism by which fermions can become bosons

(B) describe the two classes of subatomic particles

(D) explain the concept of particle "spin"

(E) argue that most matter is composed of one type of particle

102. Which of the following is NOT mentioned as a characteristic of bosons?

(A) They can be composed of groups of fermions.

(B) They are measured in integer spin.

(D) They tend to bunch together in the same fundamental state.

(E) They lead to phenomena such as superconductors and superfluids

103. Which of the following can be properly inferred from the passage?

(A) An atom composed of two protons and a neutron would be considered a boson.

(B) Skyrmions have been discovered in superconductors and other condensed matter environments.

(D) A current through a superconducting wire will never dissipate.

(E) Fermions cannot behave as bosons unless they are cooled to a temperature near absolute zero.''

104. According to the passage, which of the following describes a difference between fermions and bosons?

(A) Fermions cannot inhabit the same fundamental state, whereas bosons bunch together in the same

state.

(B) Fermions contain many more types of particles than bosons.

(D) Fermions have integral spin values, whereas Bosons have half-integer spin.

(E) Fermions do not obey the Pauli principle, whereas bosons do.

105. Based on the information in the passage about the Pauli exclusion principle, to which one of the following

situations would this principle be most relevant?

(A) Fermi Energy: The maximum energy that electrons in a solid will contain in order to avoid having

identical energy levels.

(B) Particle Accelerators: Devices that will accelerate charged particles to very high speeds through the

application of an external magnetic field.

interdependent properties.

(D) Double Slit Experiment: An experiment that revealed the particle and wave duality of photons.

(E) The Higgs Field: The field produced by the conjectured Higg's particle that would explain why matter

has mass.

Questions 106–108 are based on the following reading passage.

Homo economicus, or economic human, denotes the idea of human beings as rational, narrowly selfinterested

agents who, given total information about opportunities and possible constraints, seek to obtain the

highest possible well-being for themselves at the least possible cost. In the late 19th century, a host of

economists built mathematical models based on

5 conceiving of real humans as Homo economicus.

Exponents of Homo economicus tend to acknowledge that total information is not possible in the real

world; thus, breakdown in models based on the concept are due to imperfect information held by the selfinterested

economic actors. Amartya Sen has pointed out that Homo economicus ignores that people can and

do commit to courses of action out of

morality, cultural expectations, and so forth. Veblen and Keynes allege that Homo economicus assumes far

too great an understanding of macroeconomics on the part of humans. Tversky put forth that investors are not

rational: they are unconcerned by small chances of large losses, but quite risk-averse regarding small losses.

Bruno Frey points out that humans are often intrinsically motivated, and that such motivation explains heroism,

craftsmanship, and other

15 drives that do not fit neatly into the model of a narrowly focused gain-seeker. Critics of the psychoanalytic

tradition point out, somewhat obviously, that humans are frequently conflicted, lazy, and inconsistent.

Consider each of the answer choices separately and indicate all that apply.

106. Which of the following phenomena would exemplify Bruno Frey's critique of Homo economicus?

A woodworker spends months on the delicate inlay of a door, knowing that his many hours of hard

work will inevitably result in a higher price when he comes to sell the piece.

A television journalist often travels to dangerous countries all over the world because he is

contractually obligated to do so, and his ratings are higher the more dangerous his exploits appear to

be.

An economist dedicates her career to illustrating a fundamental flaw in a particular theory, though she

knows there will be no tangible reward for her efforts.

107. Which of the following best describes the main idea of the passage?

(A) Homo economicus is a useful, if theoretical, actor to use in the formation of mathematical models.

(B) Homo economicus is a fundamentally flawed and thus theoretically useless construction, for a host of

reasons.

theory.

(D) Homo economicus is a problematic construction, because it simplifies human motivations and is

overly optimistic about human understanding.

(E) Homo economicus fell out of favor with most economists in the 20th century due to its many

incorrect assumptions about humanity.

Consider each of the answer choices separately and indicate all that apply.

108. Which of the following is a complaint leveled against the theory of Homo economicus posited by certain

economists in the late 19th century?

It assumes that the average person knows a lot more about the general workings of the economy than

he or she actually does.

It assumes that humans experience a proportional and linear emotional response to all risks and

rewards.

It assumes that the primary impetus behind human decision-making is not predicated on ethics or

cultural mores.'

Questions 109–110 are based on the following reading passage.

While critics contend that the views expounded on in Against Method are tantamount to scientific

anarchism, its author Paul Feyerabend maintains that his views stem not from a desire to promote scientific

chaos so much as from a recognition that many of the fundamental tenets of science—rationality, empiricism,

and objectivity, for example—are as seriously flawed

as the "subjective" paths to truth that scientists are quick to repudiate. Feyerabend goes further by arguing that

many methods that are now condemned in the scientific community played a critical role in historical

moments of scientific progress. The fact that these methods helped science advance in the past indicates that

scientists should think twice before they condemn them.

Much of Against Method is a case study of the events surrounding Galileo's single-handed rejection of

the geocentric cosmological model in favor of the updated heliocentric model. Feyerabend goes to lengths to

point out that what ultimately allowed Galileo to succeed in convincing the Western world that the earth

revolved around the sun (and not the other way around) was the use of methods most modern scientists would

deem highly suspect. For

example, in attempting to explain why the rotation of the earth did not cause a rock dropped from a tower to

follow a curved, rather than a straight, path, Galileo relied on several as-yet unproven hypotheses about the

laws of motion, essentially begging the question for his own position. Additionally, his published works

display a rhetorical style that reads more like propaganda than like scholarly work. By showing that these

methods were critical to a crucial

20 scientific advancement, Feyerabend casts doubt on whether these "unscientific" practices really deserve the

criticism they so often garner.

109. Replacement of the word repudiate in line 5 of the passage with which of the following words would results in

the LEAST change in meaning in the passage?

(A) overrule

(B) embrace

(D) decry

(E) debate

110. The passage implies that Feyerabend makes use of a "case study" (line 10) primarily in order to:

(A) demonstrate that since a canonical example of scientific progress itself made use of practices now

deemed unscientific, scientists ought to revise their account of what is and is not acceptable

scientific practice

(B) show that Galileo, in his attempt to prove that a rock dropped from a tower followed a straight, not a

curved path, was guilty of many of the same errors in reasoning that make science controversial

today

"subjective," as well as "objective," paths to truth, it needs to adopt some of the techniques that were

prevalent in Galileo's time

(D) back up the claim that tautological reasoning is acceptable only when used in the service of

supporting hypotheses that have yet to be proven

(E) demonstrate that any endeavor in the philosophy of science that uses examples from history to

support its claims is ultimately doomed to failure

Questions 111–115 are based on the following reading passage.

In traditional theater forms, the roles of performer and audience are completely separate, so that

performance space can be said to encompass an actors' sphere and a spectators' sphere. Even when performers

move out into the audience or when there is scripted audience interaction, spectators do not become

performers. Finally, while stories may open up the

imagination or excite audiences, according to Augusto Boal, they discourage political action by providing

catharsis. The passive spectator follows the play's emotional arc and, once the action concludes, finds the

issue closed. Boal reminds us that our theater etiquette creates a kind of culture of apathy where individuals do

not act communally, despite shared space, and remain distanced from art.

Workshop theater, such as Boal's Image Theatre and Forum Theatre, is a response to that. In the

workshop form, performance space is created for a select group of people, but the performers' sphere and the

audience's sphere are collapsed: everyone is at once theater maker and witness. In Image Theatre, participants

will come up with a theme or issue and arrange themselves into a tableau that depicts what that issue looks like

in society today, versus

what the ideal situation would be. They then try to transition from the current image to the ideal image in a way

that seems plausible to all the participants. Forum Theatre, on the other hand, creates a narrative skit depicting

a certain problem. After the actors have gone through the action of the play once, a facilitator, known as the

joker (like the one in a pack of cards), encourages those who have watched the story to watch it again and to

stop it at any time to

take the place of the protagonist. The aim is to find a solution to the problem, realizing along the way all of the

obstacles involved. In Forum Theatre, just as in Image Theatre, there is not always a solution. The main goal of

this form, then, is to engage in the action, to reflect, and to understand particular issues as being part of a

larger picture, thus using art to re-cast what seem like private troubles in a public, political light.

The main reason Boal developed these workshop styles was to grant audiences agency so that they may

create ways to free themselves of oppression. Because he found theater audiences to be locked into a passive

role—just like he found the oppressed coerced into a subservient role in relation to their oppressors—he

created the "spect-actor," or someone who simultaneously witnesses and creates theater.

111. The second paragraph of the passage serves to

(A) elaborate on the topic of the first paragraph

(B) provide a rationale for an artistic endeavor

(D) explain the theater's lack of appeal

(E) evaluate two contrasting styles of theater

112. The author uses the word agency to mean

(A) profit

(B) organization

(D) power

(E) hegemony

113. Which of the following would Boal consider a "spect-actor"?

(A) a person who engages in political action

(B) an audience member who finds catharsis in a play

(D) any actor

(E) a participant in an Image workshop

114. According to Boal, all of the following are disadvantage of traditional theater forms EXCEPT:

(A) Such productions prevent the actors from going into the audience.

(B) Such productions provide catharsis.

(D) Such productions obstruct political change.

(E) Such productions distance the audience from the art.

115. All of the following would be characteristic of a Forum workshop EXCEPT:

(A) Productions begin with a narrative script.

(B) Different people often play the protagonist.

(D) Participants arrange themselves into a tableau.

(E) Performances are guided by a mediator.

Questions 116–118 are based on the following reading passage.

Stars create energy through the process of fusion. When a star explodes—a phenomenon called a

supernova—so much energy is released that heavy metals such as iron and gold are formed, seeding

surrounding hydrogen clouds. Newer stars therefore contain more heavy elements in their atmospheres. Heavy

elements form the materials that make up our planet

5 (and even human bodies). It is believed that for a system of planets such as our solar system to form around a

star during cloud contraction, the presence of these heavy elements in the cloud is a necessity.

A molecular cloud can become unstable and collapse by the force of gravity, overcoming outward

thermal pressure of the constituent gases. At a given temperature and density, two

critical measures of size, Jeans mass and Jeans length, can be calculated. If the size of the cloud exceeds

either of these critical values, gravity will ultimately win, and the probability of eventual cloud contraction is

high.

However, some outside influence is still evidently required for a theoretically unstable cloud to initiate

collapse. The natural rotation of a galaxy can slowly alter the structure of a

cloud, for instance. Surrounding supernovae can generate shockwaves powerful enough to affect the debris in

other clouds, forcing the debris inward and possibly causing contraction to begin. One theory states that

density waves propagating through spiral structures can also sufficiently stimulate clouds to cause contraction.

Consider each of the answer choices separately and indicate all that apply.

116. The author of the passage suggests that cloud contraction may begin in which of the following ways?

through the process of fusion

explosions of stars within a close enough proximity generate shockwaves that prompt contraction in

nearby clouds

debris within a cloud is forced outwards

117. Which of the following inferences about our solar system is best supported by the passage?

(A) Life in the solar system depends on energy from the sun.

(B) When the system reaches a particular size, it can become unstable and begin to collapse.

(D) It is believed to have been formed from materials "seeded" into hydrogen clouds.

(E) It produced so much energy when it was formed that heavy elements were generated

118. It can be inferred from the passage that which of the following inhibits interstellar cloud collapse?

(A) supernova explosions

(B) galactic rotation

(D) gravitational force

(E) density waves

Question 119 is based on the following reading passage.

The Norton-Polk-Mathis House in San Antonio displays a well-integrated design well suited for the

primary purpose of the building: to impress. This is evidenced by the fact that the building was designed with

the street it faces in mind. Only the South façade is architecturally interesting or involved—the sides of the

building are flat, featureless, and uninteresting. The

house was designed not only as a living area, but also as a structure to be seen from the street and awed. This

intent is expressed through the use of typical Renaissance ideals of order and weight, and, while it is

asymmetrical, the building is well balanced and stable. The choice of materials also reflects the "re-discovery"

of antiquity prevalent in the Italian Renaissance. The white stone lends an elegant simplicity to the building yet

it radiates an air of strength and

10 mass reminiscent of the Parthenon or the Athenian temples—especially when juxtaposed with the other,

seemingly fragile brick and wood homes of the neighborhood.

Consider each of the answer choices separately and indicate all that apply.

119. Which of the following can be inferred about the Norton-Polk-Mathis House?

It was built during the Italian Renaissance.

Its primary purpose was utilitarian in nature.

It appears stronger than other nearby homes.

DAILY EXERCISES

Saturday, 25 July 2015

RC Set 4

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