RC - 001 - 01.02.15
The trick to cracking the CAT is to Think of yourself as a TEACHER not
a STUDENT !!
Now read this
1. Monitoring comprehension
Students who are good at monitoring their comprehension know when they
understand what they read and when they do not. They have strategies
to "fix" problems in their understanding as the problems arise.
Research shows that instruction, even in the early grades, can help
students become better at monitoring their comprehension.
Comprehension monitoring instruction teaches students to:
Be aware of what they do understand
Identify what they do not understand
Use appropriate strategies to resolve problems in comprehension
2. Metacognition
Metacognition can be defined as "thinking about thinking." Good
readers use metacognitive strategies to think about and have control
over their reading. Before reading, they might clarify their purpose
for reading and preview the text. During reading, they might monitor
their understanding, adjusting their reading speed to fit the
difficulty of the text and "fixing" any comprehension problems they
have. After reading, they check their understanding of what they read.
Students may use several comprehension monitoring strategies:
Identify where the difficulty occurs
"I don't understand the second paragraph on page 76."
Identify what the difficulty is
"I don't get what the author means when she says, 'Arriving in America
was a milestone in my grandmother's life.'"
Restate the difficult sentence or passage in their own words
"Oh, so the author means that coming to America was a very important
event in her grandmother's life."
Look back through the text
"The author talked about Mr. McBride in Chapter 2, but I don't
remember much about him. Maybe if I reread that chapter, I can figure
out why he's acting this way now."
Look forward in the text for information that might help them to
resolve the difficulty
"The text says, 'The groundwater may form a stream or pond or create a
wetland. People can also bring groundwater to the surface.' Hmm, I
don't understand how people can do that… Oh, the next section is
called 'Wells.' I'll read this section to see if it tells how they do
it."
3. Graphic and semantic organizers
Graphic organizers illustrate concepts and relationships between
concepts in a text or using diagrams. Graphic organizers are known by
different names, such as maps, webs, graphs, charts, frames, or
clusters.
Regardless of the label, graphic organizers can help readers focus on
concepts and how they are related to other concepts. Graphic
organizers help students read and understand textbooks and picture
books.
Graphic organizers can:
Help students focus on text structure "differences between fiction and
nonfiction" as they read
Provide students with tools they can use to examine and show
relationships in a text
Help students write well-organized summaries of a text
Here are some examples of graphic organizers:
Venn-Diagrams (29K PDF)*
Used to compare or contrast information from two sources. For example,
comparing two Dr. Seuss books.
Storyboard/Chain of Events (29K PDF)*
Used to order or sequence events within a text. For example, listing
the steps for brushing your teeth.
Story Map (19K PDF)*
Used to chart the story structure. These can be organized into fiction
and nonfiction text structures. For example, defining characters,
setting, events, problem, resolution in a fiction story; however in a
nonfiction story, main idea and details would be identified.
Cause/Effect (13K PDF)*
Used to illustrate the cause and effects told within a text. For
example, staying in the sun too long may lead to a painful sunburn.
Click here for more free graphic organizers.
4. Answering questions
Questions can be effective because they:
Give students a purpose for reading
Focus students' attention on what they are to learn
Help students to think actively as they read
Encourage students to monitor their comprehension
Help students to review content and relate what they have learned to
what they already know
The Question-Answer Relationship strategy (QAR) encourages students to
learn how to answer questions better. Students are asked to indicate
whether the information they used to answer questions about the text
was textually explicit information (information that was directly
stated in the text), textually implicit information (information that
was implied in the text), or information entirely from the student's
own background knowledge.
There are four different types of questions:
"Right There"
Questions found right in the text that ask students to find the one
right answer located in one place as a word or a sentence in the
passage.
Example: Who is Frog's friend? Answer: Toad
"Think and Search"
Questions based on the recall of facts that can be found directly in
the text. Answers are typically found in more than one place, thus
requiring students to "think" and "search" through the passage to find
the answer.
Example: Why was Frog sad? Answer: His friend was leaving.
"Author and You"
Questions require students to use what they already know, with what
they have learned from reading the text. Student's must understand the
text and relate it to their prior knowledge before answering the
question.
Example: How do think Frog felt when he found Toad? Answer: I think
that Frog felt happy because he had not seen Toad in a long time. I
feel happy when I get to see my friend who lives far away.
"On Your Own"
Questions are answered based on a students prior knowledge and
experiences. Reading the text may not be helpful to them when
answering this type of question.
Example: How would you feel if your best friend moved away? Answer: I
would feel very sad if my best friend moved away because I would miss
her.
5. Generating questions
By generating questions, students become aware of whether they can
answer the questions and if they understand what they are reading.
Students learn to ask themselves questions that require them to
combine information from different segments of text. For example,
students can be taught to ask main idea questions that relate to
important information in a text.
6. Recognizing story structure
In story structure instruction, students learn to identify the
categories of content (characters, setting, events, problem,
resolution). Often, students learn to recognize story structure
through the use of story maps. Instruction in story structure improves
students' comprehension.
7. Summarizing
Summarizing requires students to determine what is important in what
they are reading and to put it into their own words. Instruction in
summarizing helps students:
Identify or generate main ideas
Connect the main or central ideas
Eliminate unnecessary information
Remember what they read
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A "strategy" is a plan developed by a reader to assist in
comprehending and thinking about texts, when reading the words alone
does not give the reader a sense of the meaning of a text. In recent
years, reading comprehension strategy instruction has come to the fore
in reading instruction at all age and grade levels. By helping
students understand how these flexible tools work, teachers enable
readers to tackle challenging texts with greater independence.
Strategy instruction is rooted in the work of David Pearson and his
colleagues, who studied the processes of proficient readers, and then
sought ways to teach these processes to struggling readers. While
there is debate about the relative importance of different strategies
(or even if some should be deleted from or added to the list), most
researchers and practitioners agree about a core set of seven
strategies:
1. Activating background knowledge to make connections between new and
known information. In many classrooms, this instruction is divided
into three categories of connection as defined by Colleen Buddy --
text-to-self, text-to-text, and text-to-world (Buddy quoted in Keene
and Zimmerman, 2007).
2. Questioning the text. Proficient readers are always asking
questions while they read. Sticky notes (post-its) have become
ubiquitous in classrooms in part because they are such a useful tool
for teaching students to stop, mark text, and note questions as they
read.
3. Drawing inferences. Proficient readers use their prior knowledge
about a topic and the information they have gleaned in the text thus
far to make predictions about what might happen next. When teachers
demonstrate or model their reading processes for students through
think-alouds, they often stop and predict what will happen next to
show how inferring is essential for comprehending text.
4. Determining importance. In the sea of words that is any text,
readers must continually sort through and prioritize information.
Teachers often assist readers in analyzing everything from text
features in nonfiction text like bullets and headings, to verbal cues
in novels like strong verbs. Looking for these clues can help readers
sift through the relative value of different bits of information in
texts.
5. Creating mental images. Readers are constantly creating mind
pictures as they read, visualizing action, characters, or themes.
Teachers are using picture books with students of all ages, not
necessarily because they are easy to read, but because the lush and
sophisticated art in these books can be a great bridge for helping
students see how words and images connect in meaning-making.
6. Repairing understanding when meaning breaks down. Proficient
readers don't just plow ahead through text when it doesn't make sense
-- they stop and use "fix-up" strategies to restore their
understanding. One of the most important fix-up tools is rereading,
with teachers demonstrating to students a variety of ways to reread
text in order to repair meaning.
7. Synthesizing information. Synthesis is the most sophisticated of
the comprehension strategies, combining elements of connecting,
questioning, and inferring. With this strategy, students move from
making meaning of the text, to integrating their new understanding
into their lives and world view.
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Making Connections
Questioning
Visualizing
Inferring
Determining Importance
Synthesizing
Source -- http://www.busyteacherscafe.com/literacy/comprehension_strategies.html
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Introduction/Overview
This module explores comprehension strategies and their benefits.
Examine descriptions of each type of comprehension strategy,
instructional implications for teaching comprehension, and sample
lessons.
Although word recognition, decoding, and fluency are building blocks
of effective reading, the ability to comprehend text is the ultimate
goal of reading instruction. Comprehension is a prerequisite for
acquiring content knowledge and expressing ideas and opinions through
discussion and writing.
Comprehension is evident when readers can:
Interpret and evaluate events, dialogue, ideas, and information
Connect information to what they already know
Adjust current knowledge to include new ideas or look at those ideas
in a different way
Determine and remember the most important points in the reading
Read "between the lines" to understand underlying meanings
Comprehension strategies work together like a finely tuned machine.
The reader begins to construct meaning by selecting and previewing the
text. During reading, comprehension builds through predicting,
inferring, synthesizing, and seeking answers to questions that arise.
After reading, deeper meaning is constructed through reviewing,
rereading portions of the text, discussion, and thoughtful reflection.
During each of these phases, the reader relates the text to his own
life experiences.
Comprehension is powerful because the ability to construct meaning
comes from the mind of the reader. Therefore, specific comprehension
instruction—modeling during read-alouds and shared reading, targeted
mini-lessons, and varied opportunities for practice during small-group
and independent reading—is crucial to the development of strategic,
effective readers.
Types of Comprehension Strategies
There are six main types of comprehension strategies (Harvey and Goudvis; 2000):
Make Connections—Readers connect the topic or information to what they
already know about themselves, about other texts, and about the world.
Ask Questions—Readers ask themselves questions about the text, their
reactions to it, and the author's purpose for writing it.
Visualize—Readers make the printed word real and concrete by creating
a "movie" of the text in their minds.
Determine Text Importance—Readers (a) distinguish between what's
essential versus what's interesting, (b) distinguish between fact and
opinion, (c) determine cause-and-effect relationships, (d) compare and
contrast ideas or information, (e) discern themes, opinions, or
perspectives, (f) pinpoint problems and solutions, (g) name steps in a
process, (h) locate information that answers specific questions, or
(i) summarize.
Make Inferences—Readers merge text clues with their prior knowledge
and determine answers to questions that lead to conclusions about
underlying themes or ideas.
Synthesize—Readers combine new information with existing knowledge to
form original ideas, new lines of thinking, or new creations.
Students quickly grasp how to make connections, ask questions, and
visualize. However, they often struggle with the way to identify what
is most important in the text, identify clues and evidence to make
inferences, and combine information into new thoughts. All these
strategies should be modeled in isolation many times so that students
get a firm grasp of what the strategy is and how it helps them
comprehend text.
However, students must understand that good readers use a variety of
these strategies every time they read. Simply knowing the individual
strategies is not enough, nor is it enough to know them in isolation.
Students must know when and how to collectively use these strategies.
Teaching Strategies
Modeling through think-alouds is the best way to teach all
comprehension strategies. By thinking aloud, teachers show students
what good readers do. Think-alouds can be used during read-alouds and
shared reading. They can also be used during small-group reading to
review or reteach a previously modeled strategy.
Wilhelm (2001) describes a think-aloud as a way to:
Create a record of the strategic decision-making process of going through text
Report everything the reader notices, does, sees, feels, asks, and
understands as she reads
Talk about the reading strategies being used within the content being read
There are many ways to conduct think-alouds:
The teacher models the think-aloud while she reads aloud, and the
students listen.
The teacher thinks aloud during shared reading, and the students help out.
Students think aloud during shared reading, and the teacher and other
students monitor and help.
The teacher or students think aloud during shared reading while
writing on an overhead, on self-stick notes, or in a journal.
Students think aloud in small-group reading, and the teacher monitors and helps.
Students individually think aloud during independent reading using
self-stick notes or a journal. Then students compare their thoughts
with others.
(Wilhelm, 2001)
When you introduce a new comprehension strategy, model during
read-aloud and shared reading:
Decide on a strategy to model.
Choose a short text or section of text.
Read the text ahead of time. Mark locations where you will stop and
model the strategy.
State your purpose—name the strategy and explain the focus of your think-alouds.
Read the text aloud to students and think aloud at the designated points.
If you conduct a shared reading experience, have students highlight
words and phrases that show evidence of your thinking by placing
self-stick notes in the book.
Reinforce the think-alouds with follow-up lessons in the same text or
with others.
(Wilhelm, 2001)
Use the following language prompts to model the chosen strategy :
Make Connections
This reminds me of a time when I …
I know about this topic because I …
The setting of this book is just like …
This book is something like …
What's going on in this book is just like what's happening in …
Ask Questions
Before I read this text, I wonder about …
While I'm reading, I try to figure out …
After I read, I ask myself …
I wonder why…
What does this word mean?
Why did ____________ do that?
What is going to happen next?
Why did the author put that part in there?
I have questions about this part because it doesn't make sense. I need
to make sure I read it right. If I reread and fix a mistake, that
might answer my question.
Visualize
The author gives me a picture in my mind when he or she describes …
I can really see what the author talks about when he or she …
I can draw a picture of what the author describes.
Determine Text Importance
I know these parts of the story are important because they match my
purpose for reading, which was …
I believe the author thinks ____________ is important because …
I think the author's opinion about _____ is ______ because …
This text uses the (cause/effect, problem/solution, description,
compare/contrast, sequence/steps in a process) text structure. I can
use a graphic organizer to help me understand it.
I see lots of information right here. I need to identify which parts
are important and which parts are just interesting.
All these ideas are important, but I think some are more important
than others. I need to determine which ideas are the most important.
This (chart, table, graph, time line) helps me understand that …
These (boldfaced words, font changes, bullets, captions) help me
locate what is important.
Let me take the big ideas and summarize the text.
Make Inferences
The author says this, but means …
If I read between the lines, the author tells me that …
The clues to prove my inference are …
Because of what the author said, I know that …
From the clues or information the author gives, I can conclude that …
I think that ____________ will happen next because the author says ____________.
Synthesize
This story or passage is really about… My views on this are…
My opinion of _________ is …
I first thought ________ about the topic. Now I think …
I've read a lot of information. Let me stop and think about this for a minute.
My judgment of this information is …
From this information, I can generalize that …
Additional Tips
Revisit the same text to model more than one strategy. For example, on
Monday, use a text to model what's important versus what's
interesting. On Tuesday, use the text to model how to identify big
ideas. On Wednesday, use the big ideas to summarize and synthesize.
Extend the text as a reader-response activity. For example, on Monday,
use a text as a shared reading lesson to model how cause-and-effect
relationships help determine text importance. On Tuesday, extend
thinking: map the cause-and-effect relationships onto graphic
organizers, synthesize big ideas, and draw conclusions.
Sample Shared Reading Lesson
Strategy: Determine Text Importance (Main Idea/Supporting Details)
Text: greeting card, Benchmark Education Company's Comprehension
Strategy Poster "Safety Signs"
Day 1
Say: Sometimes when we read a piece of text, we have a hard time
choosing the most important parts. This lesson will help us learn to
do that. Here is a card that I received. First I'll think of the main
idea about the card, and then I'll think of some details that help to
prove the main idea. This isn't a playing card or a note card—it's a
greeting card. That is the most important concept. I'll write This is
a greeting card on the graphic organizer where it reads Main Idea.
Read the card aloud to students.
Use the following think-aloud to model how to determine details: Now
I'll think of some details about the card. These details describe the
main idea and let people know that the main idea is true. I'll look
for details that prove that this is a greeting card. First, I see that
the card has a picture on the front. I'll write It has a picture in
the first Supporting Details box. Next, I notice that the card is
signed by the person who sent it. I'll write It has a signature in the
next Supporting Details box. Can you think of another detail about the
greeting card? Let's add that to the graphic organizer.
Day 2
Say: Yesterday we looked at a greeting card and identified the main
idea and supporting details. Today we're going to read a text about
road signs and pay attention to what the words tell us. Please listen
to find out the main idea and supporting details of the text.
After reading aloud the text, draw a main idea and supporting-details
graphic organizer on chart paper. Ask students to help complete it
with information from the text. If they have difficulty, guide them
with the following prompts:
Main Idea: Read the title and the first sentence. Ask: Is the author
telling us the main idea here? Model thinking about the strategy: The
title of the selection is Signs. This is the topic, which gives us a
clue about the main idea. In the first sentence, the author states
that it is easy to read road signs if you look at their colors. That
sounds as though it is an important concept the author wants us to
know about signs. Now I'll keep reading to see what types of signs the
author mentions to support this idea.
Supporting Details: Read the second, third, and fourth sentences. Ask:
Does the author tell us supporting details here? How do you know?
Model your thinking: The author describes three different colors of
signs—red stop sign, a yellow be careful sign, and an orange work
sign. These examples support the main idea that colors help us read
road signs.
Sample Small-Group Reading Lesson
Strategy: Determine Text Importance (Implied Main Idea/Supporting Details)
Text: Benchmark Education Company's text Plants—Level 12 (G)
Part 1
Use a real-life example to model how to infer.
Say: Listen carefully to the following sentence: Even though the
children wore heavy coats, they were shivering as they waited for the
bus. I'm giving you a hint as to what season it might be. I don't tell
you, but you can use the clues in the sentence to infer that it is
winter. Many times, authors do not directly state information in the
text. To be good readers, we have to infer as we read. We use clues
and evidence to figure out what the author hints or implies.
We're going to find an implied main idea for two different parts of a
book. We know that the main idea is the most important information
that the writer wants us to understand. In this case, the topic is
plants. We'll need to think carefully about what the authors tell us
about plants so that we can understand the implied main idea.
Remember, the main idea will not be directly stated.
Create a graphic organizer.
To activate students' prior knowledge about plants, creating a KWL
chart. Record what they already know about plants in the K column and
what they would like to know in the W column. Tell them that they will
complete the L column after they read.
Topic: Plants
K
(What I Know)
W
(What I Want to Know)
L
(What I Learned)
Plants have roots and leaves.What other plant parts are there? Plants
need water and light to grow.
How does a plant get water?
How does a plant get food?
We can eat plants.
What parts of a plant can we eat?
Do we use plants in other ways?
Some animals eat plants. How can we grow a plant?
Preview the book.
Hold up the book. Ask: What do you see in the photograph on the cover?
What do you think the girl is doing? What kind of plant is shown on
the cover?
Look at the title page. Ask: What do you think these children are
doing? How are plants involved? What things are the children using as
they work with the plants?
Preview the photographs in the book, reinforcing the language used in
the text. For example, say: On page 2, I see three kinds of plants.
What are some ways that plants are alike?
Set a purpose for reading.
Say: I want you to see if you can find answers to the questions on our
KWL chart. Monitor students' reading and provide support as necessary.
Discuss the reading and complete the graphic organizer.
Ask students to share answers to any questions from the KWL chart that
they found during the reading. Complete the L column of the chart.
Topic: Plants
K
(What I Know)
W
(What I Want to Know)
L
(What I Learned)
Plants have roots and leaves.What other plant parts are there?Plants
have roots, leaves, stems, and flowers.Plants need water and light to
grow.
How does a plant get water?
How does a plant get food?
Water falls as rain. The ground soaks it up. The roots help get water
from the ground.
The leaves use light from the sun to make food.
We can eat plants.
What parts of a plant can we eat?
Do we use plants in other ways?
We can eat some roots, stems, leaves, flowers, and seeds.Some animals
eat plants. How can we grow a plant?We can put soil and a seed in a
cup, water it, and give it sunlight to grow our own plant.
Sample Small-Group Reading Lesson
Part 2
Model how to determine the implied main idea utilizing a graphic organizer.
Remind students that to infer means to understand clues and evidence
that the author has provided for us in the text. Implications are not
directly stated.
Say: The first part of the book (pages 2–11) gives me many details
about the parts of a plant. One detail is that roots help a plant stay
in the ground. The book also tells me that roots help a plant get
water. I'll write these facts in the first Supporting Details box. Now
I'll look for other details to add to my chart. Leaves make food for
the plant. Stems take water to the leaves and flowers. Flowers make
seeds. New plants grow from seeds. All these details tell me how the
parts of a plant help it grow and stay alive. Even though the author
didn't directly state this as the main idea, the clues and evidence
imply it. I'll write this on the chart where it reads Main Idea #1.
Main Idea/Supporting Details
Topic: Plants
Part 3
Guide students to identify the second implied main idea.
Briefly review pages 12–16. Then ask students to select the most
important details and use those as clues and evidence to find the
implied main idea. If students need additional modeling and
think-alouds, complete the remainder of the graphic organizer
together. If they seem to understand the concept, allow them to
complete the graphic organizer in small groups, pairs, or
individually. Monitor their work and provide guidance as necessary.
Allow time for students to share their recorded information.
Main Idea/Supporting Details
Topic: Plants
- See more at: http://www.benchmarkeducation.com/best-practices-library/comprehension-strategies.html#sthash.Hn8YLojs.dpuf
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Scaffolding: Strategies for Improving Reading Comprehension Skills
by Patricia Babbitt
Introduction
Most Effective Strategies
Practical Applications of Reading Strategies
Summary
Resources
INTRODUCTION
Remember the adventures that lived and breathed between the pages of a
really good book when, as a young reader, you slipped away
undiscovered into your own magical world? My favorite works
wereCharlotte's Web, Arabian Nights, Huckleberry Finn, Arthurian
Legends, and, later, the timeless tragedy of William Shakespeare's
Hamlet. It is no surprise that many of us who loved such adventures
grew up to become today's English teachers and writers. The surprise
comes when we discover how many of our own students are struggling
readers.
But surprise need not lead to a permanent state of frustration. By
scaffolding reading instruction with various strategies, you will
improve the reading abilities of most students, and you will begin to
hear struggling readers say things like "I remember every part of that
story!" The key is to apply reading strategies persistently and
imaginatively. Speaking of imagination, let me ask you to indulge for
a moment in a bit of guided imagery. Picture a beautiful, majestic
cathedral soaring upward. Then visualize restoration experts at work
on that architectural wonder, identifying the problems that need
correcting and building a scaffold next to the structure so that they
can interact with it at different heights. In a similar way, English
teachers build a scaffold for struggling readers so that they can
interact safely and securely with the text.
MOST EFFECTIVE STRATEGIES
Theoretically speaking, if the daily reading curriculum uses
research-proven methods, students should develop skills for
comprehending the text. But you may be wondering which strategies are
the most beneficial. That question was answered in 1997 by a 14-member
panel appointed by the National Institute of Child Health and Human
Development (NICHD). The results of their research, published under
the titleTeaching Children to Read (see resources below), revealed
that the eight most effective strategies are as follows:
Comprehension monitoring
Cooperative learning
Graphic organizers
Story structure
Question answering
Question generating
Summarization
Multiple Strategy
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF READING STRATEGIES
Comprehension monitoring
Reading activities can be divided into three categories, depending on
when they take place: pre-reading, reading, and post-reading.
Pre-reading: Collecting and defining vocabulary terms from the text
will assist students in understanding words that otherwise may
interrupt their reading. It will also help them increase their
vocabulary in a meaningful, relevant way. Students can record the
terms in a notebook or on flash cards. Another strategy involves
having students preview comprehension questions so that they can focus
on answering those questions as they read.
Reading: Teachers can guide students' interaction with the text by
asking questions about literary elements, having students present oral
summaries of the plot, or asking them to collect details or write
observations on post-it notes. If students have previewed
comprehension questions, they can answer these questions as they read.
Post-reading: Summarizing (see below) is an effective strategy that
can take many different forms.
Cooperative learning
Cooperative learning is a strategy that maximizes student engagement,
reduces class tensions, and promotes student learning. Typically,
students work in groups of four. If you plan to use cooperative
learning frequently in classes, consider arranging your classroom to
facilitate learning in small groups.
The following are examples of how students can work cooperatively to
learn more about a narrative work of literature:
Each group uses a plot diagram to locate and summarize a stage of plot
development.
Groups conference briefly with the teacher to ensure their answers are correct.
Students reassemble into new groups comprising one "expert" from each
of the previous groups.
These new groups pool their expertise to fill out every stage of the
plot diagram.
The session concludes with a class discussion of the novel, short
story, play, or narrative poem.
Graphic organizers and story structure
Graphic organizers, which provide a visual map for the reader, can be
placed next to the text as learners read in groups or individually,
aloud or silently. They are particularly useful in helping readers to
understand the structure of a narrative or of an argument. Following
are descriptions of three types of organizers.
Comparison/Contrast: These organizers can help students consider the
similarities and differences between stories, plots, themes, and
characters. An example of such an organizer is a Venn diagram (PDF),
which consists of interlocking circles or ellipses. The area common to
both circles shows similarities between two items, while the areas
unique to each circle show differences between the items.
Hierarchy Diagram: This graphic organizer can assist students who are
reading informational texts of all kinds, whether related to language
arts or to other content areas. The hierarchy diagram (PDF) offers the
opportunity to apply literary terms to the reading, make connections
between the parts of a concept, or analyze the author's craft. For
example, consider placing characterization at the top of the graphic
organizer as the overarching concept. The next level of this graphic
organizer can then be assigned to characters, and the last level can
deal with methods of characterization, including the use of dialogue,
author description, and action.
Matrix Diagram: This organizer is effective in representing
comparisons and contrasts. For example, students can use the matrix
diagram (PDF) to compare and contrast the styles of various authors by
entering key elements of style at the top and then filling in the
lower cells with the similar or different approaches of the authors
they are considering.
Question answering
The typical approach to question answering is to answer comprehension
questions upon completion of the selection, but questions can be a
part of a reading lesson at many points. As mentioned before,
previewing questions can help students focus their reading. In
addition, story stems that prompt students to complete a question can
organize a cooperative learning experience as students read. Partners
can take turns using story stems to quiz one another on the reading.
Following are examples of typical story stems:
Explain why….
Explain how….
How does…affect…?
What is the meaning of…?
Why is …important?
What is the difference between … and…?
Question generating
Students can write questions about the story as a post-reading
exercise. These questions can then be integrated into formal tests or
informal questioning games. You might want to suggest that students
generate questions by adapting sentences from the text. Students can
also generate questions to identify their own uncertainties about the
text. They can then try to answer these questions by consulting you or
other students.
Summarizing
This is an effective strategy for readers who have difficulty
remembering and writing about what they have read. A summary can take
many forms, including travelogues, journals, double-entry journals,
and letters. For example, students can create a travel itinerary that
summarizes the action of a narrative, can write a journal from a
particular character's point of view, can set up a double-entry
journal about the theme of a work, or can summarize events in a letter
that one character writes to another.
Multiple Strategy
This strategy addresses individual learning styles by having students
use different media—such as text, images, or video—to analyze or
comment on a work of literature. For example, readers can follow a
procedure like this one:
Begin analyzing a story by using a worksheet listing the elements to
be identified.
Use word processors and instructional software to create and fill in
graphic organizers with clip art and fields of text.
Refer to worksheets for definitions to be added to electronic graphic
organizers.
If students have access to video cameras and editing software, they
can also create videos that offer commentary on a literary work.
SUMMARY
Scaffolded learning experiences can support and improve the
performance of students before, during, and after reading. Such
experiences help students develop essential skills for understanding
and extracting meaning from text and boost their performance on
reading comprehension assessments. In addition, students who benefit
from scaffolded learning are better able to function as independent
readers and to express ideas in a variety of ways.
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A meteor stream is composed of dust particles that have been ejected
from a pa rent comet at a variety of velocities．These particles follow
the same orbit as the pa rent comet，but due to their differing
velocities they slowly gain on or fall behind the disintegrating comet
until a shroud of dust surrounds the entire cometary orbit．Astronomers
have hypothesized that a meteor stream should broaden with time as the
dust particles‟ individual orbits are perturbed by planetary
gravitational fields．A recent computer—modeling experiment tested this
hypothesis by tracking the influence of planetary gravitation over a
projected 1000··year period on the positions of a group of
hypothetical dust particles．In the model，the particles were randomly
distributed throughout a computer simulation of the orbit of an actual
meteor stream，the Geminid．The researcher found, as expected, that the
computer. model stream broadened with time．Conventional
theories，however, predicted that the distribution of particles would
be increasingly dense toward the center of a meteor
stream．Surprisingly, the computer. model meteor stream gradually came
to resemble a thick walled，hollow pipe． Whenever the Earth passes
through a meteor stream，a meteor shower occurs．Moving at a little over
1500，000 miles per day around its orbit，the Ear七h would take，on
average，just over a day to cross the hollow，computer-model Geminid
stream if the stream were 5，000 years old．Two brief periods of peak
meteor activity during the shower would be observed，one as the Earth
entered the thick-walled＂pipe＂and one as it exited．There is no reason
why the Earl[h should always pass through the stream's exact center,
so the time interval between the two bursts of activity would vary
from one year to the next． Has the predicted twin—peaked activity been
observed for the actual yearly Geminid meteor shower? The Geminid data
between 1970 and 1979 show just such a bifurcation，a secondary burst
of meteor activity being clearly visible at an average of 19
hours(1，200，000 miles)after the first burst．The time intervals between
the bursts suggest the actual Geminid stream is about 1000 years old．
56．The primary focus of the passage is on which of the following?
(A) Comparing two scientific theories and contrasting the predictions
that each would make concerning a natural phenomenon
(B) Describing a new theoretical model and noting that it explains the
nature of observations made of a particular natural phenomenon
(C) Evaluating the results of a particular scientific experiment and
suggesting further areas for research
(D) Explaining how two different natural phenomena are related and
demonstrating a way
to measure them
(E) Analyzing recent data derived from observations of an actual
phenomenon and constructing a model to explain the data
57． According to the passage，which of the following is an accurate
statement concerning meteor streams?
(A) Meteor streams and comets start out with similar orbits，but only
those of meteor streams are perturbed by planetary gravitation．
(B) Meteor streams grow as dust particles are at traced by the
gravitational fields of cornets． (C) Meteor streams are composed of
dust particles derived from comets． (D) Comets may be composed of
several kinds of materials，while meteor streams consist only of large
dust particles． (E) Once formed，meteor streams hasten the further
disintegration of comets．
58． The author states that the research described in the first
paragraph was undertaken in order to
(A) determine the age of an actual meteor stream
(B) identify the various structural features of meteor streams
(C) explore the nature of a particularly interesting meteor stream
(D) test the hypothesis that meteor streams become broader as they age
(E) show that a computer model could help in explaining actual
astronomical data
59． It can be inferred from the passage that which of the following
would most probably be observed during the Earth's passage through a
meteor stream if the conventional theories mentioned were correct?
(A) Meteor activity would gradually increase to a single，intense
peak，and then gradually decline． (B) Meteor activity would be steady
throughout the period of the meteor shower．
(C) Meteor activity would rise to a peak at the beginning and at the
end of the meteor shower．
(D) Random bursts of very high meteor activity would be interspersed
with periods of very little activity. (E) In years in which the Earth
passed through only the outer areas of a meteor stream，meteor activity
would be absent．
60． According to the passage，why do the dust particles in a meteor
stream eventually surround a comet‟s original orbit?
(A) They are ejected by the comet at differing velocities．
(B) Their orbits are uncontrolled by planetary gravitational fields．
(C) They become part of the meteor stream at different times．
(D) Their velocity slows over time．
(E) Their ejection velocity is slower than that of the comet．
61．The passage suggests that which of the following is a prediction
concerning meteor streams that can be derived from both the
conventional theories mentioned i and the new computer-derived theory?
A) Dust particles in a meteor stream will usually be distributed
evenly throughout any cross section of the stream．
(B) The orbits of most meteor streams should cross the orbit of the
Earth at some point and give rise to a meteor shower． (
(C) Over time the distribution of dust in a meteor stream will
usually become denser at the outside edges of the stream than at the
center．
(D) Meteor showers ca used by older meteor streams should be on
average，longer in duration than those caused by very young meteor
streams。
(E) The individual dust particles in older meteor streams should be,
on average, smaller than those that compose younger meteor streams
62．It can be inferred from the last paragraph of the passage that
which of the following must be
true of the Earth as it orbits the Sun?
(A) Most meteor streams it encounters are more than 2，000 years old．
(B) When passing through a meteor stream，it usually passes near to the
stream's center．
(C) It crosses the Geminid meteor stream once every year．
(D) It usually takes over a day to cross the actual Geminid meteor stream．
(E) It accounts for most of the gravitational perturbation affecting
the Geminid meteor stream．
63． Which of the following is an assumption underlying the last
sentence of the passage?
(A) In each of the years between 1970 and 1979，the Earth took exactly
19 hours to cross the Geminid meteor stream．
(B) The comet associated with the Geminid meteor stream has totally
disintegrated．
(C) The Geminid meteor stream should continue to exist for at least 5，000 years．
(D) The Geminid meteor stream has not broadened as rapidly as the
conventional theories would have predicted．
(E) The computer-model Geminid meteor stream provides an accurate
representation of the development of the actual Geminid stream．
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