RC 2

Adam Smith, who is mainly known to economists for defending the
virtues of self-love, describes human
nature in the Theory of Moral Sentiments [1776] as possessing moral
dispositions opposed to selfish
behaviour. In the Smithian model, the moral sense operates via the
figure of the impartial spectator, who
allows us to define what actions are proper or appropriate (from
propriety in the work of Smith) and thus
meritorious (worthy of reward) and which actions are not and, thus,
are demeritorious (worthy of punishment).
Morality, in this scheme, can be described at two different levels, i)
at the level of rules of behaviour against
which a social response is observed; and ii) at the level of effective
behaviour, i.e., the actual degree of
compliance to the set of prevalent norms in the community.
The evolutionary, or biological, interest in the human sense of
morality, can be traced back to Darwin
himself. In his The Descent of Man [1871] he concludes that:
"[P]rimeval man, at a very remote period, was influenced by the praise
and blame of his fellows. It is
obvious, that the members of the same tribe would approve of conduct
which appeared to them to be for the
general good, and would reprobate that which appeared evil."
Since then, most of the work in evolutionary approaches to morality
deal only with the evolution of moral
behaviour (generally understood as apparent or genuine self-sacrifice)
and not with the evolution of rules of
behaviour. In his The Biology of Moral Systems, Alexander (1987)
argues that beyond Hamilton (1964)'s
world of kin-selection, moral systems are sustained by what he calls
indirect reciprocity. Specifically,
selection could favor strategies that involve self-sacrifice due to
returned benefits in the future –associated
with the individual's reputation and status in his community. In his
framework, there is no space for altruistic
behaviour when interaction is non-repeated. Sober and Wilson (1994),
among others have pointed to multilevel
selection arguments to understand how genuine altruism could have
evolved in our species.
The evolution of the rules themselves is not only important in itself
to the extent that it defines one community's
culture, but also in its impact on behaviour. Experimental economists
have shown that altruistic punishment
(sanctioning free-riders) plays a crucial role in the achievement of
social cooperation in collective action
problems.

4. Which of the following statements is in line with Adam Smith's
formulation of morality?
(a) Defending the virtues of selfishness is meritorious (worthy of
reward) in any society and has been
so through the ages.
(b) Humans possess moral dispositions and this moral sense helps them
decide which actions are
meritorious.
(c) Each of us has the figure of an impartial spectator inside us
which allows us to come up with
rational solutions to moral problems.
(d) It is the actual degree of compliance to the set of prevalent
norms in a community that ultimately
defines morality.


5. Which of the following can be inferred from the passage?
(a) Morality at the level of social rules is largely sustained through
a focus on rewards and punishments.
(b) Altruism arises from the tendency of humans to select strategies
that ensure the survival of their
species.
(c) The definition of human morality changes with time and morality as
such is subject to natural
selection on several levels.
(d) An individual's altruistic behaviour may lead to an improvement in
his/her status within his/her
community.


6. The author is most likely to agree with which of the following statements?
(a) Altruism as a concept seems to be at odds with the concept of evolution.
(b) Evolutionary approaches have largely concentrated on understanding
how moral behaviour came
about.
(c) Darwin's views cannot be reconciled with the Smithian model of the
moral sense.
(d) Moral behaviour is a prerequisite for the survival of any species.