Questions 150–152 are based on the following reading passage.
Most mental health disorders and cases of drug abuse tend to diminish a person's ability to recognize
other people's feelings. A recent study in Norway suggests, however, that these effects can be bolstered by a
nasal spray puff of the brain hormone oxytocin, which is known to increase feelings of calm and social
bonding. Although oxytocin is already prescribed for
5 certain disorders that affect social function, such as autism, these treatments are often tried in isolated cases,
leaving the overall effects of the drug without evaluation.
The Norwegian experiment focused on 40 students, each of whom was given either a control dose of salt
water or the drug oxytocin. After the nasal dose, the students were shown faces of happy, angry, or neutral
expressions, some of which were subtler than others. The
10
researchers found that after a nasal spray dose of oxytocin, the students' awareness of the expressions was
intensified. Further, the experiment showed that the oxytocin had the greatest effect on those who were least
able to evaluate emotions properly when given the control.
Although the results of this study seem promising, Leknes, the lead scientist in the investigation,
cautions that the hormone would not be a "cure-all" for mental illness or drug
15 addiction. Rather, he suggests, the hormone might help some individuals better interpret the social cues from
the world around them.
150. Based on the information in the passage, the author of the passage would most likely agree with which of the
following statements about the brain hormone oxytocin?
(A) Its overall effects require further evaluation.
(B) In the future, it will be used to cure mental illness and drug addiction.
(C) It is not useful for people who are already able to interpret social cues.
(D) Its effects on the brain are unknown.
(E) It is more effective when dosed via nasal spray than orally.
151. The passage lends the most support to which of the following conclusions about the nasal spray study of
oxytocin?
(A) The results of the study are inconclusive because a sample set of 40 students is not substantial.
(B) The nasal spray of oxytocin increased feelings of calm and social bonding for the students.
(C) Many students were unable to recognize the expressions shown to them when given only the control
dose of salt water.
(D) The students who might need oxytocin most are the ones who appear most responsive to the
hormone.
(E) The subtler the expression, the more difficult it was for the students to identify.
152. Which of the following is NOT mentioned in the passage regarding the Norwegian study on oxytocin?
(A) The study showed that oxytocin made students more able to distinguish faces from one another.
(B) Leknes was the lead scientist in the investigation.
(C) A control dose of salt water was used to gauge normal student ability to recognize facial expressions.
(D) Students who participated in the study were shown happy, angry, or neutral expressions.
(E) Oxytocin had the greatest effect on students who were least able to evaluate emotions properly when
given the control dose.
Question 153 is based on the following reading passage.
Ever-present in Jamaican folklore and storytelling is the character of the trickster Anansi, an African
spider-god who regularly outsmarts other animal-god characters. Also known as Kwaku Ananse, 'Nancy Spida,'
and Aunt Nancy in the Southern US, the character of Anansi originated with the Ashanti people in Ghana. In
Jamaican culture, as well as throughout the
5
Caribbean, Anansi has been a symbol of slave resistance. Just as Anansi uses cunning and subterfuge to achieve
victories over his oppressors, so too did slaves employ such strategies within the power structure of the
plantations.
Consider each of the answer choices separately and indicate all that apply.
153. Which of the following can be inferred from the passage?
Anansi originated in Jamaican folklore.
Jamaican folklore features other characters that have both divine and animal characteristics.
Anansi is known on at least two continents
Questions 154–156 are based on the following reading passage.
The cosmic microwave background is a uniform 2.7 Kelvin radiation that permeates the entire universe.
Although it was postulated almost 50 years before, Penzias and Wilson discovered the cosmic microwave
background accidentally in the 1970's. Working at Bell Labs, these two scientists were using a radio telescope
to observe distant stars. They found, however,
5
that no matter where they pointed their telescope they observed an approximately 3 Kelvin background signal.
After convincing themselves that this signal was real and not some artifact of their instrument, they consulted
with a team at Princeton University that had been searching for the cosmic microwave background. The
Princeton team confirmed what Penzias and Wilson had found. Apparently, Penzias and Wilson had
accidentally stumbled upon the oldest
10 observable in the entire universe.
Why does the cosmic microwave background exist and permeate all of space? Just an instant after the
Big Bang, all matter in the universe was so energetic, or hot, that it existed as free particles known as "quarks."
In the fractions of a second following, the universe expanded and cooled until the quarks lost enough energy to
form electrons, protons, and neutrons,
15
the building blocks of ordinary matter. Photons, the smallest particles of light, also filled the universe and
were so energetic that they "bounced" off electrons, keeping the electrons and protons from forming atoms.
After approximately 400,000 more years, the photons lost enough energy that atoms could form readily.
Without any lone electrons off of which photons could "bounce," the photons began streaming unimpeded all
through the universe, mostly
20
unchanged but for one exception. Due to the further expansion and cooling of the universe, these photons have
cooled to just 2.7 degrees above absolute zero. It was these same photons that Penzias and Wilson observed
approximately 13.6 billion years later here on Earth.
154. Which of the following most accurately expresses the author's intent in writing the passage?
(A) to describe the discovery and reason for the cosmic microwave background.
(B) to explain how science discoveries can be made accidentally.
(C) to argue that the cosmic microwave background is the oldest observable in the universe.
(D) to defend the work of Penzias and Wilson.
(E) to support the theory of the Big Bang using the cosmic microwave background.
155. According to the passage, which of the following events occurred first after the Big Bang?
(A) The universe expanded and cooled until atoms formed.
(B) Photons streamed unimpeded through space.
(C) All matter existed as particles known as "quarks."
(D) The cosmic microwave background cooled to 2.7 Kelvin.
(E) Atomic nucleii, composed of protons and neutrons, formed.
156. According to the passage, to which of the following would the author most likely agree regarding the discovery
of Penzias and Wilson?
(A) It was not as important as the signal for which they were originally searching.
(B) The telescope belonging to Penzias and Wilson was more sensitive than that of the Princeton team.
(C) Penzias and Wilson would not have discovered the cosmic microwave background if it had been more
than 3 Kelvin in temperature.
(D) Penzias and Wilson did not initially understand the implications of their results.
(E) Penzias and Wilson did not believe that their signal was real when they took their discovery to the
Princeton team.
Questions 157–158 are based on the following reading passage.
American composer and conductor John Philip Sousa viewed the increasing popularity of the phonograph
with deep dismay. He suggested that it would "reduce the expression of music to a mathematical system of
megaphones, wheels, cogs, disks, cylinders, and all manner of revolving things, which are as like real art as the
marble statue of Eve is like her beautiful,
5
living, breathing daughters." Such "mechanical" music was not sincere, according to Sousa: "The nightingale's
song is delightful because the nightingale herself gives it forth. The boy with a penny whistle and glass of water
may give an excellent imitation, but let him persist, he is sent to bed as a nuisance."
Sousa further decried a "decline in domestic music," noting the decline of musical
10
instrument purchases and predicting that when music comes so easily out of a phonograph, mothers will not
bother to sing lullabies to their babies. He opined that when music is so readily playable, musical and vocal
instruction as a normal part of education will fall out of fashion, the "tide of amateurism" receding, and music
will become the province of machines and professional singers only. "What of the national throat?" asked
Sousa. "Will it not weaken?
15 What of the national chest? Will it not shrink?"
Consider each of the answer choices separately and indicate all that apply.
157. Which of the following, if they occurred, would contradict Sousa's arguments?
A private school that once demanded two semesters of vocal instruction as a requirement for
graduation now offers the same classes as electives.
A young boy in an isolated rural area during the Great Depression hears a professional bluegrass band
for the first time on a phonograph, and it inspires him to ask his grandfather to teach him to play the
family banjo.
A modern recording artist comments that, because of her terrible stage fright, her live performances
are less genuine than the recordings she is able to produce when she feels comfortable in the studio.
158. The "national chest," as used in the passage, means:
(A) the performances of professional singers
(B) the US Treasury
(C) the phonograph
(D) the vocal abilities of amateur American singers
(E) musical instruments found in American homes
Questions 159–160 are based on the following reading passage.
In thermodynamics, an idealized blackbody is an object that reflects zero incident electromagnetic
radiation, absorbing all such radiation instead and consequently warming up. The blackbody emits just as much
energy per unit time as it absorbs; the electromagnetic spectrum of the emitted energy, however, is
completely determined by the temperature of
the blackbody and by no other properties thereof, such as material composition or structure. In contrast,
reflected radiation undergoes no fundamental change in its original spectral characteristics, other than a
5 possible Doppler shift created by the motion of the reflector relative to an observer. Researchers have
recently discovered that a microscopic "forest" of vertically aligned single-wall carbon nanotubes of varying
heights applied to a surface has
10 extremely low reflectance across a wide range of wavelengths of visible light, the closest scientists have come
thus far to creating a perfectly dark material.
159. Which sentence in the passage states the variables that define the electromagnetic spectrum of a blackbody?
Consider each of the answer choices separately and indicate all that apply.
160. Which of the following can be properly inferred from the passage?
An object that reflects incident electromagnetic radiation is not an idealized blackbody.
Reflected radiation always exactly matches the spectral characteristics of the original incident
radiation.
A microscopic "forest" of vertically aligned single-wall carbon nanotubes of varying heights applied
to a surface will absorb all incident electromagnetic radiation.
Questions 161–163 are based on the following reading passage.
Universalism was most prominently set forward by the linguists Joseph Greenberg and Noam Chomsky.
Chomsky, attempting to account for the celerity with which children grasp the subtle grammatical rules of
their native tongues, argued that the best explanation is that the human brain has "modules" capable of
generating an entire grammar on the basis of a
5
small set of "generative rules." We should therefore expect to find grammatical features shared by all human
languages. Greenberg, on the other hand, painstakingly listed the grammatical features shared by multiple
languages, positing that such commonalities must reflect innate cognitive biases. Greenberg's data paid special
attention to word order, yielding the hypothesis that some grammatical features of languages must be codependent.
Chomsky's view, in turn,
10
predicts that as languages evolve and change, the grammatical features generated by the same rule should covary.
A team led by Russell Gray, a New Zealand psychologist, recently released the results of a massive study
that they claim casts doubt on these universalist predictions. Borrowing the technique of phylogenetic
analysis from evolutionary biology, Gray and his colleagues reconstructed four family trees containing more
than two thousand languages.
15
They found that the co-dependencies in word-order change varied among families, suggesting that each family
has evolved its own rules. Moreover, if co-dependencies were common to two families, there was evidence
that they had separate origins within each family, thus yielding no evidence of family-invariant rules. Many
universalists, however, were unimpressed: that languages vary widely is well-known. But given that some
language is spoken by virtually all
20 human beings, it would be strange if it did not reflect cognitive universals. It is the search for those universals,
not the cataloguing of variations, that should take priority.
161. The passage most likely uses the word borrowing to indicate that
(A) Gray and his colleagues produced research that was not original.
(B) linguistics and evolutionary biology have many features in common.
(C) progress in linguistics cannot be carried out through the traditional methods of linguistics.
(D) research methods common to one branch of science can prove fruitful to another.
(E) facts about linguistics can shed light on our understanding of evolution.
162. Select the sentence in the passage that provides support for the thesis of universalism.
163. Which of the following can be inferred from the passage?
(A) The thesis of universalism can only be supported through empirical studies.
(B) Some researchers believe that empirical research can undermine theoretical conclusions.
(C) Grammatical features in all languages co-vary.
(D) There is no evidence of the existence of family-invariant rules.
(E) Universalism is the only way to explain the speed at which children acquire language.
Questions 164–166 are based on the following reading passage.
For many years, most physicists supported one of two cosmological theories: the steady-state universe,
and the Big Bang. The theory of the steady-state universe states that the universe has always existed exactly as
we observe it at present, whereas the Big Bang theory postulates that the universe was conceived from a
singularity in space-time that has expanded
5 into current universe. The validity of either theory was not tested until 1929, when Edwin Hubble famously
discovered what is now known as Hubble's Law.
Hubble's experiment is now a famous benchmark in modern physics. Hubble, using the Mount Wilson
Observatory, observed a class of stars known as Cephied variables, luminous stars that blink and flicker with a
rate that depends on their distance from the observer.
10
Using this relation and years of observing, Hubble calculated the distance to many of these variable stars.
Milton Humason, a fellow astronomer, helped Hubble to calculate the stars' relative velocities to Earth. When
Hubble combined the two data sets he found an interesting relationship: all the stars appeared to be moving
away from us! In fact, the speed at which they were moving increased with an increasing distance from Earth.
15
Hubble realized, from this small set of data, that the earth was a part of the expanding universe. As the
universe expands outward in all directions, any observer from a fixed vantage point will look out and see
everything running away from them. The further away any two points are, the more the expansion affects them,
and the faster they appear to be moving away from each other. Hubble's result was the first experimental proof
that we do not live in a
20 steady-state universe, but rather a dynamic and expanding one.
164. Which of the following best expresses the main idea of the passage?
(A) Edwin Hubble discovered Hubble's Law, a benchmark in modern physics.
(B) Hubble discovered that the universe is expanding, disproving the theory of the steady-state universe.
(C) Before 1929, most physicists supported one of two theories of the universe.
(D) All objects in space are receding from each other because of the expansion of the universe.
(E) Modern physics would not have progressed without Hubble's discovery of the expanding universe.
165. Which of the following is not mentioned in the passage regarding Hubble's experiment in which he deduced
Hubble's Law?
(A) It used years of data on Cepheid variable stars.
(B) Hubble accumulated data using the Mount Wilson Observatory and help from a fellow astronomer.
(C) Hubble found that all the observed stars appeared to be moving away from Earth.
(D) Hubble deduced the distance to Cepheid variable stars based on the rate at which they blinked and
flickered.
(E) Hubble deduced the velocity of Earth to find the stars' absolute velocities
.
Consider each of the answer choices separately and indicate all that apply
.
166. Which of the following can be properly inferred from the passage?
The steady-state universe theory does not allow for an expanding universe.
The closer any two points in the universe are, the less expansion effects them, and the slower they
appear to be moving apart.
After Hubble's discovery of the expanding universe, the Big Bang was the only cosmological theory
that could be valid.
Questions 167–169 are based on the following reading passage.
Homer's The Odyssey is an epic poem putting a popular oral myth into writing for the first time. The
Histories is an attempt by its author Herodotus to provide an unbiased account of historical conflicts in the
Hellenistic world. These two works share two important motifs: the interference of the gods in the events of
the mortal world, and the concept of a
5
predetermined and unavoidable destiny. One might assume that these two themes are one and the same—a
predetermined fate set forth by the gods. However, Homer's and Herodotus's gods are presented as acting in a
political fashion—each one acting within certain boundaries to accomplish his or her own agenda. As such, the
wills of the gods do not coincide to allow for the formulation of a cohesive "master plan." Instead of destiny
created by the gods, Homer
10
and Herodotus present fate as something beyond the gods—a driving force under which the actions of gods
and mortals lead to the realization of destiny. In The Odyssey and The Histories, the idea of gods with limited
power leads to a conception of fate wherein the gods act not as the creators of destiny, but as agents of its
fulfillment.
167. Which of the following, if true, would most strongly support the assumption rejected by the argument of the
passage?
(A) The gods pursue their agendas by conferring with other gods to ensure that their agendas serve a
common goal.
(B) The agendas of gods and mortals frequently coincide with the demands of fate.
(C) Homer and Herodotus disagree strongly about the motives and agendas of the gods, as well as about
the nature and severity of their conflicts.
(D) Destiny would be fulfilled regardless of what activities gods and mortals engaged in.
(E) In both Homer and Herodotus, gods and mortals frequently examine their motives and goals and are
capable of making their own decisions about what to do.
168. The author most likely uses the term unbiased to convey which of the following ideas?
(A) The historical conflicts are presented in a way that precludes religious explanation.
(B) The historical conflicts are presented in a way that does not favor any particular party to the conflicts.
(C) The subjects of the histories are not restricted to any particular ethnic, social, religious, or
geographical group.
(D) The historical conflicts are explained entirely by reference to the actions of the people and states
involved in them.
(E) This histories are written in such a way as to challenge the sensibilities of their readers.
Consider each of the answer choices separately and indicate all that apply.
169. Which of the following can be inferred about the gods in The Odyssey and The Histories?
There are limits to what the gods can accomplish.
The gods, like human beings, pursue their own interests.
The gods do not control the final outcomes of their actions.
Questions 170–172 are based on the following reading passage.
The goal of a sunscreen chemical is simple—to prevent harmful UVB (and in some cases UVA) radiation
from penetrating the skin. There are two main ways in which this goal can be accomplished—by reflecting
(physically blocking) ultraviolet light or by absorbing UV light. Sunscreen chemicals are therefore put into
two groups based on which method they employ;
5
they are classified as either physical blockers or chemical absorbers. Physical blockers, the most common
of which is titanium dioxide, scatter all radiation in the UVB and UVA range. Titanium dioxide reflects light
waves in the 290–770 nm range. However, the vast majority of commercial sunscreens are chemical
absorbers.
Chemical absorbing sunscreens work on the principle of photo-excitation of electrons.
10
They absorb photons of light of specific wavelengths and use the energy to promote electrons between energy
levels. When the electrons later return to the ground energy state, they emit light at longer wavelengths (lower
energies). Chemical species that exhibit this behavior are called chromophores. The specific wavelength
absorbed by a given chromophore is determined by the discrete quantal amounts of energy that are required to
excite electrons
15
between the energy levels or its molecules. Since the primary objective of an absorbing sunscreen is to absorb
UVB light (290–320 nm), the best sunscreens are those that absorb most heavily in this range. The
chromophores that most readily fit this requirement are those with conjugated pi-bonding systems.
170. Which of the following best summarizes the distinction between chemical blockers and chemical absorbers?
(A) Chemical blockers darken their target light waves while chemical absorbers lighten them.
(B) Chemical blockers convert their target light waves into radiation while chemical absorbers convert
them into a different kind of radiation.
(C) Chemical blockers disperse their target light waves while chemical absorbers convert them into light
with a longer wavelength.
(D) Chemical blockers scatter their target light waves while chemical absorbers convert them into
radiation.
(E) Chemical blockers prevent light waves from reaching the skin while chemical absorbers absorb them
into the skin.
171. Based on the passage, which of the following can be inferred about the chromophores referred to in the final
sentence of the passage?
(A) If exposed to light with wavelengths of approximately 300 nm, they will scatter the radiation.
(B) If exposed to light with wavelengths in the 290–320 nm range, they will lower the energy level of
some of their constituent electrons.
(C) If exposed to light waves in the 290–770 nm range, they will absorb the photons and emit them as
light of longer wavelengths.
(D) If exposed to light with wavelengths of approximately 300 nm, some electrons in their component
molecules will switch to higher energy levels.
(E) If exposed to light waves in the 290–320 nm range, they will promote the discrete quantal amounts of
energy that are required to excite electrons between energy levels.
172. Select the sentence in the second paragraph that explains the physical feature on the basis of which one could
select a chromophore for a sunscreen that would protect against UVA radiation.
Questions 173–175 are based on the following reading passage.
The story of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight has its foundation in Arthurian legend as formulated and
passed down by the pagan oral tradition. In its written form, however, the tale bears the marks of Christian
influence—it contains numerous scriptural and doctrinal references to Christianity. Since the author of Sir
Gawain and the Green Knight is unknown,
5
it is difficult to determine with any certainty the extent to which he was responsible for the incorporation of
Christianity into the legend. For all we know, the story may have been "Christianized" in its oral form long
before the poet set it into writing. The poet himself supports this possibility by writing in the opening lines
that he will tell "anew" the tale "as I heard it in hall." If this is the case (and even if it is not), it is distinctly
possible that the heroes of
10 the Arthurian tradition represent in the written form a pagan interpretation of Christian ideals, rather than an
externally imposed Christianization of pagan codes of behavior.
While it could certainly be argued that the poet portrays Sir Gawain as a good Christian hero in an
attempt to infuse the story with Christian values, the critical tone of the narrative seems to suggest a different
conclusion—that by critically editorializing the paganized form of
15
Christianity embodied by Sir Gawain, the poet is trying to correct what he sees to be the flaws of that form.
From the perspective of this conclusion it is clear that the poet only "Christianizes" the traditional legend to
the extent that he criticizes the pagan interpretation of Christianity that is inherent in the behavior of its
heroes.
Those who would argue that the poet intends to portray Sir Gawain as the perfect
20
Christian hero would point to the descriptions of his chivalric qualities. The poet does indeed describe
Gawain's Christian virtues generously; he even makes a special aside early in the second fit to describe the
significance of the pentangle embossed on Gawain's shield, and to explain "why the pentangle is proper to that
peerless prince." The author then delves into a lengthy enumeration of Gawain's Christian virtues. What is
more, the fact that he uses the
25
pentangle—a pagan symbol—to do it would seem to suggest that the author does indeed intend to add a
Christian interpretation to the pagan legend he is retelling. Taken in its larger context, however, this passage
takes on a different significance. In further examination of the poet's descriptions of Sir Gawain, it becomes
apparent that the knight's seemingly perfect Christian behavior is superficial. A contrast can be observed
between his "Christian" words
and actions and his decidedly un-Christian motives. One theory is that, by emphasizing this contrast, the poet
30 intends to denounce the pagan "misunderstanding" of the Christian message.
Consider each of the answer choices separately and indicate all that apply.
173. Which of the following can be inferred about the pagan and Christian origins of Sir Gawain and the Green
Knight?
As an orally-handed-down tale, it was pagan, but as a written tale, it was Christian.
Sir Gawain was a knight in King Arthur's court.
Sir Gawain and the Green Knight contains both Christian and pagan elements, although it is not clear
that either perspective is dominant.
174. Which of the following can be inferred from the author's interpretation of the Christian aspects of the poem
presented in the third paragraph?
(A) Pagans and Christians differ in their interpretations of the Christian symbolism in the story.
(B) A pagan cannot have motives that are acceptable from a Christian perspective.
(C) A pagan story cannot be used to convey a Christian attitude.
(D) Christianity was absent in Arthurian stories before such stories were written down.
(E) Being a good Christian involves having both the right actions and the right motives.
175. Which of the following, if true, would most undermine the "theory" mentioned in the final sentence of the
passage?
(A) Sir Gawain is portrayed as disingenuous in his exercise of "Christian virtues."
(B) Another character in the story is also associated with pagan symbols and is praised straightforwardly
for her Christian virtues.
(C) Sir Gawain, in the story, prays to God to help him in battle.
(D) Another character in the story is associated with pagan symbols but is portrayed as having no
Christian virtues whatsoever.
(E) A group of people in the story are portrayed as "barbarians" who are neither pagan nor Christian.
Questions 176–177 are based on the following reading passage.
Various tales in Herodotus's The Histories display a circular means of the realization of fate. In one
story involving the birth of Cyrus and his rise to power in Asia, Herodotus tells us that the Median king
Astyages was having disturbing dreams about his daughter Mandane.
We are told that his first dream, in which Mandane's urine flooded all of Asia, was interpreted
5
ominously by the Magi. As a consequence, when the time came to marry Mandane off, Astyages made what
turned out to be a fatal mistake. While there were plenty of wealthy and powerful Medes eligible for marriage,
"his fear of the dream made him refuse to marry her to any of them; instead, he gave her to a Persian called
Cambyses, whom he found to be of noble lineage and peaceful behavior, although he regarded him as the social
inferior by far of a Mede
10
of the middle rank." Essentially, Astyages altered what would be a normal treatment of the marriage in order to
marry his daughter to someone less threatening. This attempt to avoid the prophesy of the first dream
backfired however, and when Mandane became pregnant, Astyages had another foreboding dream. This second
dream was interpreted to mean that Mandane's son would rule in Astyages's place. Herodotus tells us that "[the
prophecy of the
15
second dream] was what Astyages was guarding against" when he again took action, telling his advisor
Harpagus to kill the baby. This plan backfired as well since Harpagus refused to kill the baby, leading to a
complicated chain of events whereby the child—later to be named Cyrus—survived and returned to conquer
his grandfather's kingdom. In this story, Astyages's downfall is depicted as resulting directly from two major
mistakes—marrying Mandane to Cambyses
20
and telling Harpagus to kill their offspring. These mistakes in turn are shown to be motivated by fear of the
prophesies of his downfall. Had not some divine force planted the dreams in his head, he would not have taken
the steps necessary to fulfill those prophesies. Through this circular path, destiny is unavoidably realized.
Consider each of the answer choices separately and indicate all that apply.
176. Which of the following can be inferred from the passage about Astyages's view of the Median socio-political
structure?
As a result of his first dream, Astyages believed the threat his daughter posed to him could be through
her husband.
Astyages believed that it is always best to observe the recommendations of the Magi.
Astyages believed that a Persian noble was less of a threat to his position than a Median noble.
177. Which of the following, if true, would most strongly undermine the claim that Astyages's downfall proceeded
from two major mistakes?
(A) Mandane's son would have conquered his grandfather's kingdom regardless of who his father was.
(B) Astyages's first dream was in fact a warning against allowing his daughter to marry.
(C) Harpagus would not have killed the baby regardless of whether he knew the prophesy.
(D) Mandane's husband would have deposed Astyages if he had known why his son was killed.
(E) Astyages's dreams were better interpreted as advising him not to do anything out of the ordinary.
Questions 178–180 are based on the following reading passage.
Nineteenth century painter Albert Bierstadt's view of his artistic skill as a vehicle for self-promotion is
was evident in his choices of style and subject matter. From the debut of his career with the exhibition of Lake
Lucerne (1856), he developed a fixed style that was most easily recognizable for its size—the largest of the
636 paintings on display at the exhibition, it
5
was over three meters wide. This, coupled with the artist's ability to represent the optimistic feeling in
America during the westward expansion, is what led to Bierstadt's explosive growth in popularity during the
1860's. Bierstadt deliberately appealed to those rich patrons—railroad tycoons and financiers—whose nearest
substitute to making the arduous journey out West was to purchase a hyperbolized replica of a Western vista.
10
But trends following the Civil War produced a drastic shift away from the adventurous optimism of the
pre-war era and toward a more subdued appreciation for the details of American life. In this new social
context, the paintings now seemed too decadent, too gaudy, for the new philosophy taking root in the country
following the horrors of war. As one commentator in 1866 put it, Bierstadt's work "may impose upon the
senses, but does not affect
15 the heart." In a sense, then, that same American pride upon which Bierstadt had capitalized to advance his
success was now, in its fickleness, the source of his downfall.
178. According to the passage, the new "philosophy" taking root in America after the Civil War would be best
described as
(A) justifiable pessimism
(B) somber realism
(C) restrained minimalism
(D) prideful idealism
(E) stubborn dogmatism
179. The passage makes use of the phrase in quotations primarily in order to
(A) challenge a prevailing thesis
(B) point out an erroneous assertion
(C) provide expert testimony
(D) highlight a controversy
(E) offer evidence supporting a claim
180. All of the following are mentioned as contributors to Bierstadt's success EXCEPT:
(A) the dimensions of his paintings
(B) his ability to convey auspicious feelings
(C) subdued appreciation for the details of American life
(D) catering to the preferences of the wealthy
(E) portrayals of exaggerated
Most mental health disorders and cases of drug abuse tend to diminish a person's ability to recognize
other people's feelings. A recent study in Norway suggests, however, that these effects can be bolstered by a
nasal spray puff of the brain hormone oxytocin, which is known to increase feelings of calm and social
bonding. Although oxytocin is already prescribed for
5 certain disorders that affect social function, such as autism, these treatments are often tried in isolated cases,
leaving the overall effects of the drug without evaluation.
The Norwegian experiment focused on 40 students, each of whom was given either a control dose of salt
water or the drug oxytocin. After the nasal dose, the students were shown faces of happy, angry, or neutral
expressions, some of which were subtler than others. The
10
researchers found that after a nasal spray dose of oxytocin, the students' awareness of the expressions was
intensified. Further, the experiment showed that the oxytocin had the greatest effect on those who were least
able to evaluate emotions properly when given the control.
Although the results of this study seem promising, Leknes, the lead scientist in the investigation,
cautions that the hormone would not be a "cure-all" for mental illness or drug
15 addiction. Rather, he suggests, the hormone might help some individuals better interpret the social cues from
the world around them.
150. Based on the information in the passage, the author of the passage would most likely agree with which of the
following statements about the brain hormone oxytocin?
(A) Its overall effects require further evaluation.
(B) In the future, it will be used to cure mental illness and drug addiction.
(C) It is not useful for people who are already able to interpret social cues.
(D) Its effects on the brain are unknown.
(E) It is more effective when dosed via nasal spray than orally.
151. The passage lends the most support to which of the following conclusions about the nasal spray study of
oxytocin?
(A) The results of the study are inconclusive because a sample set of 40 students is not substantial.
(B) The nasal spray of oxytocin increased feelings of calm and social bonding for the students.
(C) Many students were unable to recognize the expressions shown to them when given only the control
dose of salt water.
(D) The students who might need oxytocin most are the ones who appear most responsive to the
hormone.
(E) The subtler the expression, the more difficult it was for the students to identify.
152. Which of the following is NOT mentioned in the passage regarding the Norwegian study on oxytocin?
(A) The study showed that oxytocin made students more able to distinguish faces from one another.
(B) Leknes was the lead scientist in the investigation.
(C) A control dose of salt water was used to gauge normal student ability to recognize facial expressions.
(D) Students who participated in the study were shown happy, angry, or neutral expressions.
(E) Oxytocin had the greatest effect on students who were least able to evaluate emotions properly when
given the control dose.
Question 153 is based on the following reading passage.
Ever-present in Jamaican folklore and storytelling is the character of the trickster Anansi, an African
spider-god who regularly outsmarts other animal-god characters. Also known as Kwaku Ananse, 'Nancy Spida,'
and Aunt Nancy in the Southern US, the character of Anansi originated with the Ashanti people in Ghana. In
Jamaican culture, as well as throughout the
5
Caribbean, Anansi has been a symbol of slave resistance. Just as Anansi uses cunning and subterfuge to achieve
victories over his oppressors, so too did slaves employ such strategies within the power structure of the
plantations.
Consider each of the answer choices separately and indicate all that apply.
153. Which of the following can be inferred from the passage?
Anansi originated in Jamaican folklore.
Jamaican folklore features other characters that have both divine and animal characteristics.
Anansi is known on at least two continents
Questions 154–156 are based on the following reading passage.
The cosmic microwave background is a uniform 2.7 Kelvin radiation that permeates the entire universe.
Although it was postulated almost 50 years before, Penzias and Wilson discovered the cosmic microwave
background accidentally in the 1970's. Working at Bell Labs, these two scientists were using a radio telescope
to observe distant stars. They found, however,
5
that no matter where they pointed their telescope they observed an approximately 3 Kelvin background signal.
After convincing themselves that this signal was real and not some artifact of their instrument, they consulted
with a team at Princeton University that had been searching for the cosmic microwave background. The
Princeton team confirmed what Penzias and Wilson had found. Apparently, Penzias and Wilson had
accidentally stumbled upon the oldest
10 observable in the entire universe.
Why does the cosmic microwave background exist and permeate all of space? Just an instant after the
Big Bang, all matter in the universe was so energetic, or hot, that it existed as free particles known as "quarks."
In the fractions of a second following, the universe expanded and cooled until the quarks lost enough energy to
form electrons, protons, and neutrons,
15
the building blocks of ordinary matter. Photons, the smallest particles of light, also filled the universe and
were so energetic that they "bounced" off electrons, keeping the electrons and protons from forming atoms.
After approximately 400,000 more years, the photons lost enough energy that atoms could form readily.
Without any lone electrons off of which photons could "bounce," the photons began streaming unimpeded all
through the universe, mostly
20
unchanged but for one exception. Due to the further expansion and cooling of the universe, these photons have
cooled to just 2.7 degrees above absolute zero. It was these same photons that Penzias and Wilson observed
approximately 13.6 billion years later here on Earth.
154. Which of the following most accurately expresses the author's intent in writing the passage?
(A) to describe the discovery and reason for the cosmic microwave background.
(B) to explain how science discoveries can be made accidentally.
(C) to argue that the cosmic microwave background is the oldest observable in the universe.
(D) to defend the work of Penzias and Wilson.
(E) to support the theory of the Big Bang using the cosmic microwave background.
155. According to the passage, which of the following events occurred first after the Big Bang?
(A) The universe expanded and cooled until atoms formed.
(B) Photons streamed unimpeded through space.
(C) All matter existed as particles known as "quarks."
(D) The cosmic microwave background cooled to 2.7 Kelvin.
(E) Atomic nucleii, composed of protons and neutrons, formed.
156. According to the passage, to which of the following would the author most likely agree regarding the discovery
of Penzias and Wilson?
(A) It was not as important as the signal for which they were originally searching.
(B) The telescope belonging to Penzias and Wilson was more sensitive than that of the Princeton team.
(C) Penzias and Wilson would not have discovered the cosmic microwave background if it had been more
than 3 Kelvin in temperature.
(D) Penzias and Wilson did not initially understand the implications of their results.
(E) Penzias and Wilson did not believe that their signal was real when they took their discovery to the
Princeton team.
Questions 157–158 are based on the following reading passage.
American composer and conductor John Philip Sousa viewed the increasing popularity of the phonograph
with deep dismay. He suggested that it would "reduce the expression of music to a mathematical system of
megaphones, wheels, cogs, disks, cylinders, and all manner of revolving things, which are as like real art as the
marble statue of Eve is like her beautiful,
5
living, breathing daughters." Such "mechanical" music was not sincere, according to Sousa: "The nightingale's
song is delightful because the nightingale herself gives it forth. The boy with a penny whistle and glass of water
may give an excellent imitation, but let him persist, he is sent to bed as a nuisance."
Sousa further decried a "decline in domestic music," noting the decline of musical
10
instrument purchases and predicting that when music comes so easily out of a phonograph, mothers will not
bother to sing lullabies to their babies. He opined that when music is so readily playable, musical and vocal
instruction as a normal part of education will fall out of fashion, the "tide of amateurism" receding, and music
will become the province of machines and professional singers only. "What of the national throat?" asked
Sousa. "Will it not weaken?
15 What of the national chest? Will it not shrink?"
Consider each of the answer choices separately and indicate all that apply.
157. Which of the following, if they occurred, would contradict Sousa's arguments?
A private school that once demanded two semesters of vocal instruction as a requirement for
graduation now offers the same classes as electives.
A young boy in an isolated rural area during the Great Depression hears a professional bluegrass band
for the first time on a phonograph, and it inspires him to ask his grandfather to teach him to play the
family banjo.
A modern recording artist comments that, because of her terrible stage fright, her live performances
are less genuine than the recordings she is able to produce when she feels comfortable in the studio.
158. The "national chest," as used in the passage, means:
(A) the performances of professional singers
(B) the US Treasury
(C) the phonograph
(D) the vocal abilities of amateur American singers
(E) musical instruments found in American homes
Questions 159–160 are based on the following reading passage.
In thermodynamics, an idealized blackbody is an object that reflects zero incident electromagnetic
radiation, absorbing all such radiation instead and consequently warming up. The blackbody emits just as much
energy per unit time as it absorbs; the electromagnetic spectrum of the emitted energy, however, is
completely determined by the temperature of
the blackbody and by no other properties thereof, such as material composition or structure. In contrast,
reflected radiation undergoes no fundamental change in its original spectral characteristics, other than a
5 possible Doppler shift created by the motion of the reflector relative to an observer. Researchers have
recently discovered that a microscopic "forest" of vertically aligned single-wall carbon nanotubes of varying
heights applied to a surface has
10 extremely low reflectance across a wide range of wavelengths of visible light, the closest scientists have come
thus far to creating a perfectly dark material.
159. Which sentence in the passage states the variables that define the electromagnetic spectrum of a blackbody?
Consider each of the answer choices separately and indicate all that apply.
160. Which of the following can be properly inferred from the passage?
An object that reflects incident electromagnetic radiation is not an idealized blackbody.
Reflected radiation always exactly matches the spectral characteristics of the original incident
radiation.
A microscopic "forest" of vertically aligned single-wall carbon nanotubes of varying heights applied
to a surface will absorb all incident electromagnetic radiation.
Questions 161–163 are based on the following reading passage.
Universalism was most prominently set forward by the linguists Joseph Greenberg and Noam Chomsky.
Chomsky, attempting to account for the celerity with which children grasp the subtle grammatical rules of
their native tongues, argued that the best explanation is that the human brain has "modules" capable of
generating an entire grammar on the basis of a
5
small set of "generative rules." We should therefore expect to find grammatical features shared by all human
languages. Greenberg, on the other hand, painstakingly listed the grammatical features shared by multiple
languages, positing that such commonalities must reflect innate cognitive biases. Greenberg's data paid special
attention to word order, yielding the hypothesis that some grammatical features of languages must be codependent.
Chomsky's view, in turn,
10
predicts that as languages evolve and change, the grammatical features generated by the same rule should covary.
A team led by Russell Gray, a New Zealand psychologist, recently released the results of a massive study
that they claim casts doubt on these universalist predictions. Borrowing the technique of phylogenetic
analysis from evolutionary biology, Gray and his colleagues reconstructed four family trees containing more
than two thousand languages.
15
They found that the co-dependencies in word-order change varied among families, suggesting that each family
has evolved its own rules. Moreover, if co-dependencies were common to two families, there was evidence
that they had separate origins within each family, thus yielding no evidence of family-invariant rules. Many
universalists, however, were unimpressed: that languages vary widely is well-known. But given that some
language is spoken by virtually all
20 human beings, it would be strange if it did not reflect cognitive universals. It is the search for those universals,
not the cataloguing of variations, that should take priority.
161. The passage most likely uses the word borrowing to indicate that
(A) Gray and his colleagues produced research that was not original.
(B) linguistics and evolutionary biology have many features in common.
(C) progress in linguistics cannot be carried out through the traditional methods of linguistics.
(D) research methods common to one branch of science can prove fruitful to another.
(E) facts about linguistics can shed light on our understanding of evolution.
162. Select the sentence in the passage that provides support for the thesis of universalism.
163. Which of the following can be inferred from the passage?
(A) The thesis of universalism can only be supported through empirical studies.
(B) Some researchers believe that empirical research can undermine theoretical conclusions.
(C) Grammatical features in all languages co-vary.
(D) There is no evidence of the existence of family-invariant rules.
(E) Universalism is the only way to explain the speed at which children acquire language.
Questions 164–166 are based on the following reading passage.
For many years, most physicists supported one of two cosmological theories: the steady-state universe,
and the Big Bang. The theory of the steady-state universe states that the universe has always existed exactly as
we observe it at present, whereas the Big Bang theory postulates that the universe was conceived from a
singularity in space-time that has expanded
5 into current universe. The validity of either theory was not tested until 1929, when Edwin Hubble famously
discovered what is now known as Hubble's Law.
Hubble's experiment is now a famous benchmark in modern physics. Hubble, using the Mount Wilson
Observatory, observed a class of stars known as Cephied variables, luminous stars that blink and flicker with a
rate that depends on their distance from the observer.
10
Using this relation and years of observing, Hubble calculated the distance to many of these variable stars.
Milton Humason, a fellow astronomer, helped Hubble to calculate the stars' relative velocities to Earth. When
Hubble combined the two data sets he found an interesting relationship: all the stars appeared to be moving
away from us! In fact, the speed at which they were moving increased with an increasing distance from Earth.
15
Hubble realized, from this small set of data, that the earth was a part of the expanding universe. As the
universe expands outward in all directions, any observer from a fixed vantage point will look out and see
everything running away from them. The further away any two points are, the more the expansion affects them,
and the faster they appear to be moving away from each other. Hubble's result was the first experimental proof
that we do not live in a
20 steady-state universe, but rather a dynamic and expanding one.
164. Which of the following best expresses the main idea of the passage?
(A) Edwin Hubble discovered Hubble's Law, a benchmark in modern physics.
(B) Hubble discovered that the universe is expanding, disproving the theory of the steady-state universe.
(C) Before 1929, most physicists supported one of two theories of the universe.
(D) All objects in space are receding from each other because of the expansion of the universe.
(E) Modern physics would not have progressed without Hubble's discovery of the expanding universe.
165. Which of the following is not mentioned in the passage regarding Hubble's experiment in which he deduced
Hubble's Law?
(A) It used years of data on Cepheid variable stars.
(B) Hubble accumulated data using the Mount Wilson Observatory and help from a fellow astronomer.
(C) Hubble found that all the observed stars appeared to be moving away from Earth.
(D) Hubble deduced the distance to Cepheid variable stars based on the rate at which they blinked and
flickered.
(E) Hubble deduced the velocity of Earth to find the stars' absolute velocities
.
Consider each of the answer choices separately and indicate all that apply
.
166. Which of the following can be properly inferred from the passage?
The steady-state universe theory does not allow for an expanding universe.
The closer any two points in the universe are, the less expansion effects them, and the slower they
appear to be moving apart.
After Hubble's discovery of the expanding universe, the Big Bang was the only cosmological theory
that could be valid.
Questions 167–169 are based on the following reading passage.
Homer's The Odyssey is an epic poem putting a popular oral myth into writing for the first time. The
Histories is an attempt by its author Herodotus to provide an unbiased account of historical conflicts in the
Hellenistic world. These two works share two important motifs: the interference of the gods in the events of
the mortal world, and the concept of a
5
predetermined and unavoidable destiny. One might assume that these two themes are one and the same—a
predetermined fate set forth by the gods. However, Homer's and Herodotus's gods are presented as acting in a
political fashion—each one acting within certain boundaries to accomplish his or her own agenda. As such, the
wills of the gods do not coincide to allow for the formulation of a cohesive "master plan." Instead of destiny
created by the gods, Homer
10
and Herodotus present fate as something beyond the gods—a driving force under which the actions of gods
and mortals lead to the realization of destiny. In The Odyssey and The Histories, the idea of gods with limited
power leads to a conception of fate wherein the gods act not as the creators of destiny, but as agents of its
fulfillment.
167. Which of the following, if true, would most strongly support the assumption rejected by the argument of the
passage?
(A) The gods pursue their agendas by conferring with other gods to ensure that their agendas serve a
common goal.
(B) The agendas of gods and mortals frequently coincide with the demands of fate.
(C) Homer and Herodotus disagree strongly about the motives and agendas of the gods, as well as about
the nature and severity of their conflicts.
(D) Destiny would be fulfilled regardless of what activities gods and mortals engaged in.
(E) In both Homer and Herodotus, gods and mortals frequently examine their motives and goals and are
capable of making their own decisions about what to do.
168. The author most likely uses the term unbiased to convey which of the following ideas?
(A) The historical conflicts are presented in a way that precludes religious explanation.
(B) The historical conflicts are presented in a way that does not favor any particular party to the conflicts.
(C) The subjects of the histories are not restricted to any particular ethnic, social, religious, or
geographical group.
(D) The historical conflicts are explained entirely by reference to the actions of the people and states
involved in them.
(E) This histories are written in such a way as to challenge the sensibilities of their readers.
Consider each of the answer choices separately and indicate all that apply.
169. Which of the following can be inferred about the gods in The Odyssey and The Histories?
There are limits to what the gods can accomplish.
The gods, like human beings, pursue their own interests.
The gods do not control the final outcomes of their actions.
Questions 170–172 are based on the following reading passage.
The goal of a sunscreen chemical is simple—to prevent harmful UVB (and in some cases UVA) radiation
from penetrating the skin. There are two main ways in which this goal can be accomplished—by reflecting
(physically blocking) ultraviolet light or by absorbing UV light. Sunscreen chemicals are therefore put into
two groups based on which method they employ;
5
they are classified as either physical blockers or chemical absorbers. Physical blockers, the most common
of which is titanium dioxide, scatter all radiation in the UVB and UVA range. Titanium dioxide reflects light
waves in the 290–770 nm range. However, the vast majority of commercial sunscreens are chemical
absorbers.
Chemical absorbing sunscreens work on the principle of photo-excitation of electrons.
10
They absorb photons of light of specific wavelengths and use the energy to promote electrons between energy
levels. When the electrons later return to the ground energy state, they emit light at longer wavelengths (lower
energies). Chemical species that exhibit this behavior are called chromophores. The specific wavelength
absorbed by a given chromophore is determined by the discrete quantal amounts of energy that are required to
excite electrons
15
between the energy levels or its molecules. Since the primary objective of an absorbing sunscreen is to absorb
UVB light (290–320 nm), the best sunscreens are those that absorb most heavily in this range. The
chromophores that most readily fit this requirement are those with conjugated pi-bonding systems.
170. Which of the following best summarizes the distinction between chemical blockers and chemical absorbers?
(A) Chemical blockers darken their target light waves while chemical absorbers lighten them.
(B) Chemical blockers convert their target light waves into radiation while chemical absorbers convert
them into a different kind of radiation.
(C) Chemical blockers disperse their target light waves while chemical absorbers convert them into light
with a longer wavelength.
(D) Chemical blockers scatter their target light waves while chemical absorbers convert them into
radiation.
(E) Chemical blockers prevent light waves from reaching the skin while chemical absorbers absorb them
into the skin.
171. Based on the passage, which of the following can be inferred about the chromophores referred to in the final
sentence of the passage?
(A) If exposed to light with wavelengths of approximately 300 nm, they will scatter the radiation.
(B) If exposed to light with wavelengths in the 290–320 nm range, they will lower the energy level of
some of their constituent electrons.
(C) If exposed to light waves in the 290–770 nm range, they will absorb the photons and emit them as
light of longer wavelengths.
(D) If exposed to light with wavelengths of approximately 300 nm, some electrons in their component
molecules will switch to higher energy levels.
(E) If exposed to light waves in the 290–320 nm range, they will promote the discrete quantal amounts of
energy that are required to excite electrons between energy levels.
172. Select the sentence in the second paragraph that explains the physical feature on the basis of which one could
select a chromophore for a sunscreen that would protect against UVA radiation.
Questions 173–175 are based on the following reading passage.
The story of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight has its foundation in Arthurian legend as formulated and
passed down by the pagan oral tradition. In its written form, however, the tale bears the marks of Christian
influence—it contains numerous scriptural and doctrinal references to Christianity. Since the author of Sir
Gawain and the Green Knight is unknown,
5
it is difficult to determine with any certainty the extent to which he was responsible for the incorporation of
Christianity into the legend. For all we know, the story may have been "Christianized" in its oral form long
before the poet set it into writing. The poet himself supports this possibility by writing in the opening lines
that he will tell "anew" the tale "as I heard it in hall." If this is the case (and even if it is not), it is distinctly
possible that the heroes of
10 the Arthurian tradition represent in the written form a pagan interpretation of Christian ideals, rather than an
externally imposed Christianization of pagan codes of behavior.
While it could certainly be argued that the poet portrays Sir Gawain as a good Christian hero in an
attempt to infuse the story with Christian values, the critical tone of the narrative seems to suggest a different
conclusion—that by critically editorializing the paganized form of
15
Christianity embodied by Sir Gawain, the poet is trying to correct what he sees to be the flaws of that form.
From the perspective of this conclusion it is clear that the poet only "Christianizes" the traditional legend to
the extent that he criticizes the pagan interpretation of Christianity that is inherent in the behavior of its
heroes.
Those who would argue that the poet intends to portray Sir Gawain as the perfect
20
Christian hero would point to the descriptions of his chivalric qualities. The poet does indeed describe
Gawain's Christian virtues generously; he even makes a special aside early in the second fit to describe the
significance of the pentangle embossed on Gawain's shield, and to explain "why the pentangle is proper to that
peerless prince." The author then delves into a lengthy enumeration of Gawain's Christian virtues. What is
more, the fact that he uses the
25
pentangle—a pagan symbol—to do it would seem to suggest that the author does indeed intend to add a
Christian interpretation to the pagan legend he is retelling. Taken in its larger context, however, this passage
takes on a different significance. In further examination of the poet's descriptions of Sir Gawain, it becomes
apparent that the knight's seemingly perfect Christian behavior is superficial. A contrast can be observed
between his "Christian" words
and actions and his decidedly un-Christian motives. One theory is that, by emphasizing this contrast, the poet
30 intends to denounce the pagan "misunderstanding" of the Christian message.
Consider each of the answer choices separately and indicate all that apply.
173. Which of the following can be inferred about the pagan and Christian origins of Sir Gawain and the Green
Knight?
As an orally-handed-down tale, it was pagan, but as a written tale, it was Christian.
Sir Gawain was a knight in King Arthur's court.
Sir Gawain and the Green Knight contains both Christian and pagan elements, although it is not clear
that either perspective is dominant.
174. Which of the following can be inferred from the author's interpretation of the Christian aspects of the poem
presented in the third paragraph?
(A) Pagans and Christians differ in their interpretations of the Christian symbolism in the story.
(B) A pagan cannot have motives that are acceptable from a Christian perspective.
(C) A pagan story cannot be used to convey a Christian attitude.
(D) Christianity was absent in Arthurian stories before such stories were written down.
(E) Being a good Christian involves having both the right actions and the right motives.
175. Which of the following, if true, would most undermine the "theory" mentioned in the final sentence of the
passage?
(A) Sir Gawain is portrayed as disingenuous in his exercise of "Christian virtues."
(B) Another character in the story is also associated with pagan symbols and is praised straightforwardly
for her Christian virtues.
(C) Sir Gawain, in the story, prays to God to help him in battle.
(D) Another character in the story is associated with pagan symbols but is portrayed as having no
Christian virtues whatsoever.
(E) A group of people in the story are portrayed as "barbarians" who are neither pagan nor Christian.
Questions 176–177 are based on the following reading passage.
Various tales in Herodotus's The Histories display a circular means of the realization of fate. In one
story involving the birth of Cyrus and his rise to power in Asia, Herodotus tells us that the Median king
Astyages was having disturbing dreams about his daughter Mandane.
We are told that his first dream, in which Mandane's urine flooded all of Asia, was interpreted
5
ominously by the Magi. As a consequence, when the time came to marry Mandane off, Astyages made what
turned out to be a fatal mistake. While there were plenty of wealthy and powerful Medes eligible for marriage,
"his fear of the dream made him refuse to marry her to any of them; instead, he gave her to a Persian called
Cambyses, whom he found to be of noble lineage and peaceful behavior, although he regarded him as the social
inferior by far of a Mede
10
of the middle rank." Essentially, Astyages altered what would be a normal treatment of the marriage in order to
marry his daughter to someone less threatening. This attempt to avoid the prophesy of the first dream
backfired however, and when Mandane became pregnant, Astyages had another foreboding dream. This second
dream was interpreted to mean that Mandane's son would rule in Astyages's place. Herodotus tells us that "[the
prophecy of the
15
second dream] was what Astyages was guarding against" when he again took action, telling his advisor
Harpagus to kill the baby. This plan backfired as well since Harpagus refused to kill the baby, leading to a
complicated chain of events whereby the child—later to be named Cyrus—survived and returned to conquer
his grandfather's kingdom. In this story, Astyages's downfall is depicted as resulting directly from two major
mistakes—marrying Mandane to Cambyses
20
and telling Harpagus to kill their offspring. These mistakes in turn are shown to be motivated by fear of the
prophesies of his downfall. Had not some divine force planted the dreams in his head, he would not have taken
the steps necessary to fulfill those prophesies. Through this circular path, destiny is unavoidably realized.
Consider each of the answer choices separately and indicate all that apply.
176. Which of the following can be inferred from the passage about Astyages's view of the Median socio-political
structure?
As a result of his first dream, Astyages believed the threat his daughter posed to him could be through
her husband.
Astyages believed that it is always best to observe the recommendations of the Magi.
Astyages believed that a Persian noble was less of a threat to his position than a Median noble.
177. Which of the following, if true, would most strongly undermine the claim that Astyages's downfall proceeded
from two major mistakes?
(A) Mandane's son would have conquered his grandfather's kingdom regardless of who his father was.
(B) Astyages's first dream was in fact a warning against allowing his daughter to marry.
(C) Harpagus would not have killed the baby regardless of whether he knew the prophesy.
(D) Mandane's husband would have deposed Astyages if he had known why his son was killed.
(E) Astyages's dreams were better interpreted as advising him not to do anything out of the ordinary.
Questions 178–180 are based on the following reading passage.
Nineteenth century painter Albert Bierstadt's view of his artistic skill as a vehicle for self-promotion is
was evident in his choices of style and subject matter. From the debut of his career with the exhibition of Lake
Lucerne (1856), he developed a fixed style that was most easily recognizable for its size—the largest of the
636 paintings on display at the exhibition, it
5
was over three meters wide. This, coupled with the artist's ability to represent the optimistic feeling in
America during the westward expansion, is what led to Bierstadt's explosive growth in popularity during the
1860's. Bierstadt deliberately appealed to those rich patrons—railroad tycoons and financiers—whose nearest
substitute to making the arduous journey out West was to purchase a hyperbolized replica of a Western vista.
10
But trends following the Civil War produced a drastic shift away from the adventurous optimism of the
pre-war era and toward a more subdued appreciation for the details of American life. In this new social
context, the paintings now seemed too decadent, too gaudy, for the new philosophy taking root in the country
following the horrors of war. As one commentator in 1866 put it, Bierstadt's work "may impose upon the
senses, but does not affect
15 the heart." In a sense, then, that same American pride upon which Bierstadt had capitalized to advance his
success was now, in its fickleness, the source of his downfall.
178. According to the passage, the new "philosophy" taking root in America after the Civil War would be best
described as
(A) justifiable pessimism
(B) somber realism
(C) restrained minimalism
(D) prideful idealism
(E) stubborn dogmatism
179. The passage makes use of the phrase in quotations primarily in order to
(A) challenge a prevailing thesis
(B) point out an erroneous assertion
(C) provide expert testimony
(D) highlight a controversy
(E) offer evidence supporting a claim
180. All of the following are mentioned as contributors to Bierstadt's success EXCEPT:
(A) the dimensions of his paintings
(B) his ability to convey auspicious feelings
(C) subdued appreciation for the details of American life
(D) catering to the preferences of the wealthy
(E) portrayals of exaggerated
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