2 RCs

In the summer of 1905, twenty-five Black intellectuals met at Niagara Falls.

They hoped to form a national organization that would battle all forms of segregation

and discrimination and also oppose Booker T. Washington's moderate and conciliatory

policy. That policy, they felt, not only endangered Blacks' rights but also inhibited

protest. Opposed by Washington and all of his powerful friends, Black and White, the

Niagara movement never enlisted the active support of more than a small group of

Black leaders. Young Blacks who wanted to help the Black community felt that it was

not politically wise to be associated with this new organization.

Booker T. Washington advocated hard work and political passivity: he argued that

Blacks should devote their energies to getting rid of political agitators in their ranks

and that they should always abide by the law of the land. Believing that hard work

was the highest virtue, Washington urged Blacks to learn trades, and he established

schools to make that possible. He assured them that if their work were perceived as

indispensable to society, they would eventually achieve all the rights of citizenship. On

the other hand, Niagara movement leader W. E. B. Du Bois wrote: "We claim for

ourselves every single right that belongs to a free-born American - political, civil, and

social; until we get these rights we will never cease to protest and assail the ears of

America." Washington and Du Bois became national symbols of, as well as the

respective leaders of, these two mainstreams of Black thought.

Du Bois and his followers did not, for a long time, seriously encroach on

Washington's influence. But increasingly these more militant leaders forced

Washington to concede his position as the sole Black spokesperson to the White

community. Eventually Washington had to watch his own words and deeds carefully,

for he had to reckon with reactions not only from the White community but from the

Black community as well. Perhaps not surprisingly, by the time of his death in 1915,

Washington's position had moved noticeably toward that of his critics.

By the year 1910 the Niagara movement had ceased to be a serviceable

organization. By this time, however, the stage was set for the founding of the National

Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), which became one of the

principal organizations protesting racial discrimination in the Untied States.

Though small and short-lived, the Niagara movement was important. It was the

first organization founded to protest the way that Blacks had been treated since

Reconstruction. It brought to open conflict and wide public debate two types of Black

resistance, one stressing accommodation and the other urging overt protest. The

Niagara movement's strategy of active resistance to racial discrimination was later

adopted by many organizations that sought to foster equal and just treatment for all

people.

1. The primary purpose of the passage is to

(A) explain the reasons for the growth and success of the Niagara movement in the first decade of

the twentieth century

(B) reveal the differences between the leadership techniques of W. E.B. Du Bois and those of

Booker T. Washington in the early 1900's

(C) show the impact of Booker T. Washington's views on Black political movements in the twentieth

century

(D) discuss the nature of the Niagara movement and its historical role in the struggle for civil rights

(E) trace the origins of the NAACP and other political organizations to the Niagara movement

2. The author's presentation of the material includes all of the following EXCEPT

(A) chronological arrangement of events

(B) comparison and contrast

(C) direct quotation

(D) statement of cause and effect

(E) development of an extended analogy

3. According to the passage, the strategy of W.E.B. Du Bois differed from the strategy of Booker T.

Washington in that the strategy of Du Bois emphasized

(A) conciliation

(B) protest

(C) neutrality

(D) compromise

(E) caution

4. Which of the following statements about the Niagara movement does the passage best support?

(A) It opposed the idea that Black Americans should have to earn the inherent rights of citizenship

through hard work

(B) It had a sudden impact on Washington's ability to help Blacks achieve their rights

(C) It caused Washington to concede to his critics and adopt a more compliant position in relation to

White society

(D) It was opposed by much of the White community, but supported by most of the Black community

(E) It was a Black organization that arose during the Reconstruction period

5. It can be inferred that the followers of W.E.B. Du Bois were interested in all of the following EXCEPT

(A) challenging Booker T. Washington's pre-eminence as spokesperson for all Black Americans

(B) developing an organization controlled by a small group of prominent Black leaders

(C) opposing segregation, discrimination, and all other denials of Blacks' political, civil or social

rights

(D) protesting the policy of acquiescence in race relations

(E) increasing opportunities for Blacks to participate fully in American society

6. The passage contains information that would answer which of the following questions about the

history of the Niagara movement?

I. How was Booker T. Washington's policy of moderation affected by the Niagara movement?

II. Why, by the year 1910, had the Niagara movement ceased to serve its purpose?

III. In what respect might the NAACP be viewed as a successor of the Niagara movement?

(A) I only

(B) II only

(C) I and III only

(D) II and III only

(E) I, II, and III

7. Which of the following titles best summarizes the content of the passage?

(A) Booker T. Washington's Strategy: Progress Through Education and Work

(B) The Niagara Movement: Early Advocate of Organized Black Resistance

(C) The History of Social Change in the Twentieth Century

(D) A History of Racial Protest Groups in Twentieth-Century America

(E) Black Leadership and Black Organizations

The energy contained in rock within the earth's crust represents a nearly

unlimited energy source, but until recently, commercial retrieval has been limited to

underground hot water and steam recovery systems. These systems have been

developed in areas of recent volcanic activity, where high rates of heat flow cause

visible eruption of water in the form of geysers and hot springs. In other areas,

however, hot rock also exists near the surface but there is insufficient water present to

produce eruptive phenomena. Thus a potential hot dry rock (HDR) reservoir exists

whenever the amount of spontaneously produced geothermal fluid has been judged

inadequate for existing commercial systems.

As a result of the recent energy crisis, new concepts for creating HDR recovery

systems - which involve drilling holes and connecting them to artificial reservoirs

placed deep within the crust are being developed. In all attempts to retrieve energy

from HDR's, artificial stimulation will be required to create either sufficient

permeability or bounded flow paths to facilitate the removal of heat by circulation of a

fluid over the surface of the rock.

The HDR resource base is generally defined to include crustal rock that is hotter

than 150˚C, is at depths less than ten kilometers, and can be drilled with presently

available equipment. Although wells deeper than ten kilometers are technically

feasible, prevailing economic factors will obviously determine the commercial feasibility

of wells at such depths. Rock temperatures as low as 100˚C may be useful for space

heating; however, for producing electricity, temperatures greater than 200˚C are

desirable.

The geothermal gradient, which specifically determines the depth of drilling

required to reach a desired temperature, is a major factor in the recoverability of

geothermal resources. Temperature gradient maps generated from oil and gas well

temperature-depth records kept by the American Association of Petroleum Geologists

suggest that tappable high-temperature gradients are distributed all across the United

States. (There are many areas, however, for which no temperature gradient records

exist.)

Indications are that the HDR resource base is very large. If an average

geothermal temperature gradient of 22˚C per kilometer of depth is used, a staggering

13,000,000 quadrillion B.T.U.'s of total energy are calculated to be contained in crustal

rock to a ten kilometer depth in the United States. If we conservatively estimate that

only about 0.2 percent is recoverable, we find a total that is comparable to the

estimated resource base of all the coal remaining in the United States. The remaining

problem is to balance the economics of deeper, hotter, more costly wells and shallower,

cooler, less expensive wells against the value of the final product, electricity and/or

heat.

1. The primary purpose of the passage is to

(A) alert readers to the existence of HDR's as an available energy source

(B) document the challenges that have been surmounted in the effort to recover energy from HDR's

(C) warn the users of coal and oil that HDR's are not an economically feasible alternative

(D) encourage the use of new techniques for the recovery of energy from underground hot water and

steam

(E) urge consumers to demand quicker development of HDR resources for the production of energy

2. The passage would be most likely to appear in a

(A) petrological research report focused on the history of temperature-depth records in the United

States

(B) congressional report urging the conservation oil and natural gas reserves in the United States

(C) technical journal article concerned with the recoverability of newly identified energy sources

(D) consumer report describing the extent and accessibility of remaining coal resources

(E) pamphlet designed to introduce homeowners to the advantage of HDR space-heating systems

3. According to the passage, an average geothermal gradient of 22˚C per kilometer of depth can be used

to

(A) balance the economics of HDR energy retrieval against that of underground hot water or steam

recovery systems

(B) determine the amount of energy that will be used for space heating in the United States

(C) provide comparisons between hot water and HDR energy sources in the United states

(D) revise the estimates on the extent of remaining coal resources in the United States

(E) estimate the total HDR resources base in the United States

4. It can be inferred from the passage that the availability of temperature-depth records for any specific

area in the United States depends primarily on the

(A) possibility that HDR's may be found in that area

(B) existence of previous attempts to obtain oil or gas in that area

(C) history of successful hot water or steam recovery efforts in that area

(D) failure of inhabitants to conserve oil or gas reserves in that area

(E) use of coal as a substitute for oil or gas in that area

5. According to the passage, in all HDR recovery systems, fluid will be necessary in order to allow

(A) sufficient permeability

(B) artificial stimulation

(C) drilling of holes

(D) construction of reservoirs

(E) transfer of heat

6. According to the passage, if the average geothermal gradient in an area is 22˚C per kilometer of

depth, which of the following can be reliably predicted?

I. The temperature at the base of a 10-kilometer well will be sufficient for the production of

electricity

II. Drilling of wells deeper than 10 kilometers will be economically feasible

III. Insufficient water is present to produce eruptive phenomena

(A) I only

(B) II only

(C) I and II only

(D) II and III only

(E) I, II and III

7. Which of the following would be the most appropriate title for the passage?

(A) Energy from Water Sources: The Feasibility of Commercial Systems

(B) Geothermal Energy Retrieval: Volcanic Activity and Hot Dry Rocks

(C) Energy Underground: Geothermal Sources Give Way to Fossil Fuels

(D) Tappable Energy for America's Future: Hot Dry Rocks

(E) High Geothermal Gradients in the United States: Myth or Reality?